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GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



BY 



WILLIAM FEWSMITH, A.M., 

PRINCIPAL OF AN ENGLISH AND CLASSICAL SCHOOL, 

AND f *■*> 



Jm 



EDGAR A/SINGER, 

PRINCIPAL OF ZANE STREET GRAMMAR SCHOOL. 



REVISED EDITION. yn 

■ 



PHILADELPHIA: 

SOWER, BARNES & POTTS, 

37 NORTH THIRD STREET. 

1869. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by 

SOWER, BARNES & POTTS, 

in the Gerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern 



District of Pennsylvania. 



STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON & CO. 
PHILADELPHIA. 
PRINTED BY SHERMAN & CO. 



NOW HEADY. 

An Elementary Grammar of the English Language. Designed as an Introduction 
to this work. 146 pp. 12mo. 



LC Control Number 




tmp96 031273 



PREFACE. 



SlNCB there are already numerous works on the " Grammar of the 
English Language," not one of winch is entirely without merit, the ques- 
tion may well be asked why another should be added to the number. 

Perhaps. the best reply to this inquiry will be to specify those charac- 
teristics which, the authors hope, will recommend this book to the 
favorable consideration of their fellow-teachers and of all others inter- 
ested in the cause of education. 

They trust that the work will be found, on examination, to be plain 
and practical, to be simple in its outlines and in its details, and to be 
adapted equally to the class-room and to the study. Such at least is its 
design ; and, with this constantly in view, the authors' aim has been to 
pursue a course midway between the extremes of prolixity and concise- 
ness. They have desired to say just enough to make the subject plain, — 
further to explain that enough by examples and models, — and still fur- 
ther to enforce it by numerous exercises involving the principles which 
those exercises are designed to illustrate. 

They have desired, by simplicity of arrangement, by clearness of state- 
ment, by the avoidance of unnecessary words, and by the absence of 
theories and speculations, to create in the mind of the pupil a conscious- 
ness that the principles of the language are not beyond his comprehen- 
Bion, and that he can master each principle and its application as it comes 
before him. 

The usual division of Grammar into four parts is followed ; and each is 
treated of before the introduction of the succeeding part, because it is 
believed to be the experience of the best teachers that the pupil can ac- 
quire a knowledge of the subject more easily and more thoroughly by 
having his attention directed to but one thing at a time. 

In order to render the work thoroughly progressive, nothing is antici- 
pated when anticipation can possibly be avoided; and no part, or divi- 
sion, or subdivision, La introduced, without explanation or some reference 
by which the mind of the pupil is prepared for its reception, until the 
portion under present consideration has been thoroughly treated. Thus 
the pupil i:s enabled to advance intelligently; and the teacher enjoys the 
satisfaction of knowing that Ms pupils understand what they are learning. 

3 

t 



4 PREFACE. 

In Orthography are given a simple explanation of the nature and of 
the classes of letters, and the most important rules for spelling simple, 
derivative, and compound words. 

In Etymology, the different parts of speech are given ; their nature is 
explained ; and their various uses and applications are illustrated. The 
nomenclature and the arrangement of the tenses now becoming general, 
have been adopted ; and the names of the participles given by Mr. Goold 
Brown have been used, because they are considered to be such as the 
nature of the participles requires, — the most logical, and therefore the 
best. 

Syntax is introduced with explanations of sentences and of their dif- 
ferent kinds and forms, — in which the ideas of simple, complex, and com- 
pound are kept prominent, as in the treatment of words. A division of this 
part into Analysis and Synthesis is then made. The portion assigned to 
Analysis, including the models and exercises, occupies about twenty pages ; 
the design being to present a practical outline of all that is necessary to 
a complete understanding of the subject. Under Synthesis, the Rules of 
Syntax, with accompanying notes and exercises, are given in a form well 
adapted to didactic instruction. Although the analysis of sentences is 
regarded as of paramount importance, it has been left to the discretion 
of the teacher whether parsing and analysis shall be taught together, or 
whether they shall be taught separately ; each forms a distinct subject, but 
both are so arranged that any point in either may be readily consulted. 

Punctuation is given under Syntax, because it is intimately connected 
with sentences, modifying their meaning to a very great extent. For the 
same reason, Figures have been introduced under the same head. 

Prosody, as its definition and use require, treats only of verse and of 
the quantity of syllables, of accent, and of the laws of versification. 

"With this brief summary, and with thanks to those teachers and others 
who have offered suggestions, the authors send forth their work, hoping 
that it may be favorably received, where other books, more voluminous 
or of a less practical character, have proved unsatisfactory. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGH 

Grammar, Definition and Division . . 9 



PART I. — ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Letters, Definitions and Classes of . . • . . .10 

Words i 12 

Spelling 13 

Eules of 13 

General Exercises in 16 



PART II. — ETYMOLOGY. 

Classes of Words . . 17 

Parts of Speech, Definitions of ..... . 17 

Nouns, Classes of 19 

Properties of • ....».. 20 

Number 20 

Formation of the Plural 21 

Person 26 

Gender 26 

Case 30 

Declension of 31 

Parsing ........... 32 

Exercises in •••..••• 32 

Pronouns 34 

Properties of 34 

Classes of 34 

Personal 34 

Compound Personal ....... 36 

Relative 37 

Compound Relative 39 

Interrogative 40 

1* 5 



6 CONTENTS. 

FAGB 

Articles 42 

Adjectives 44 

Classes of 44 

Pronominal ........ 45 

Comparison of • . • 47 

Verbs 50 

Classes of, according to meaning 51 

Properties of . . . 52 

Voice 52 

Mode 53 

Tense 55 

Number and Person 58 

Participles ......... 58 

Classes of, according to formation .... 61 

Principal Parts • • .61 

List of Irregular Verbs 61 

Defective . . 66 

List of 66 

Auxiliary 67 

Conjugation of c 68 

Auxiliaries ........ 68 

To Be . . . . . . . . . 70 

To Love, Active Voice, • 75 

To Love, Passive Voice ...... 78 

Progressive Form, To Learn • • . . .81 

Interrogative Form, To See 83 

Negative Form 84 

Negative-Interrogative Form • • . 85 

Adverbs 88 

Classes of • 89 

Conjunctive 90 

Comparison of 

Prepositions 92 

Classes of 93 

Conjunctions 95 

Classes of ......•• 95 

Interjections . • .97 

Classes of 97 

Words used as different Parts of Speech 98 

General Exercises in Parsing 100 



CONTENTS. 



PART III. — SYNTAX. 



Sentences, Definition of 

Classes of, according to use .... 
Classes of, according to form 

Divisions of Syntax 

Analysis 

Distinctions of Subject and Predicate 

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate 
Complex Subject and Complex Predicate 
^ Compound Subject and Compound Predicate 
Exercises on Subjects and Predicates 

Independent Parts 

Qualifications of Simple Subject 

Qualifications of Qualifying Words 

Qualifications of Simple Predicate 

Qualifications of Qualifying Words 
Classification of Phrases 
Classification of Dependent Clauses . 
Analysis of Sentences . 

General Exercises in Analysis 

Synthesis 

Rules of Syntax ..... 
Rule I.— Subject of Finite Verb . 
Rule II. — Nominative Case Independent 
Rule III.— Possessive Case . 
Rule IV. — Objective Case . 
Rule V. — Apposition 
Rule VI. — Same Case after Verbs 
Rule VII. — Personal Pronouns 
Rule VIII. — Relative Pronouns , 

Rule IX. — Articles 
Rule X. — Adjectiv 
Rule XI. — Pronominal Adjectives 
Rule X1T. — Agreement of Finite Verbs 
Rul e X T 1 1. — Infinitives 

. XI V.— Participles . 
Rule XV. — Adverbs 
Rule XVI. — Prepositions . 
Rule XVII. — Conjunctions . 
Rule XVIII. — Interjections 
General Rule .... 



PAGE 

102 
102 
103 
107 
107 
109 
109 

109, 110 
110 

111, 113 
114 
115 
116 
118 
119 
120 
121 
122 
126 
129 
130 
131 
134 
137 
141 
145 
148 
150 
154 
159 
163 
167 
170 
175 
178 
182 
185 
190 
195 
195 



8 CONTENTS. 



PAGI 



General Exercises in False Syntax 199 

Punctuation 208 

Period . . . .208 

Interrogation Point, Exclamation Point • • . 209 

Colon, Semicolon 210 

Comma 211 

Dash, Curves 214 

Brackets . . 215 

Other Marks used in Writing 215 

Capitals 216 

Figures 217 

Classes of 217 

Figures of Orthography 217 

Figures of Etymology ....... 218 

Figures of Syntax 218 

Figures of Rhetoric 219 



PART IV. — PROSODY. 

Verse 222 

Kinds of 222 

Versification 223 

Feet • . 223 

Kinds of Feet . . . • . ... .223 

Denominations of Verse •••••• 224 

Scanning ..•••••••• 224 

Iambic Verse .....••• 225 

Trochaic Verse • • 226 

Anapestic Verse ••••••• 226 

Dactylic Verse . • • • • • • 227 

Amphibraic Verse ••••••• 228 

Mixed Verse • • • • • • • • 228 

Poetic Pauses •••••••• 228 



GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



Grammar is the science which treats of the correct use 
of language. 

Science means the principles of some branch of knowledge arranged 
according to a regular system or order. 

Language is the means by which human beings express their 
thoughts. Language is either spoken or written. 

English Grammar is the science which treats of the 
.correct use of the English language, both in speaking and 
in writing. 

English Grammar may be divided into four parts; — 
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of Letters, and teaches how to spell 
correctly. 

Etymology treats of Words, teaches how to classify 
them, and -hows their changes of form and meaning. 

Syntax treats of Sentences, and teaches how to construct 
them from words. 

Prosody of Verse, and teaches how to arrange 

word- according to the principles of Versification. 

9 



10 CLASSES OF LETTEES — VOWELS. 



Paet First. 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 



Orthography treats of Letters, and teaches hew to 
Bpell correctly. 

Letters are particular marks or signs used to represent certain 
sounds of the human voice. 

The sounds of all words in the English language can be repre- 
sented by different combinations of the twenty-six letters in its 
alphabet. 

CLASSES OF LETTEES. 
Letters are divided into two classes; Vowels and Con- 
sonants. 

A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple, perfect 
sound; as, a, e, o. 

A Consonant is a letter which represents a sound that 
can be perfectly made only with the aid of a vowel; as, /, 

*, i- 

VOWELS. 
A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple, perfect 
sound. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u y and sometimes w and y. 

Wor y is a vowel when it ends a word or a syllabic ; when it is 
not fDllowed in the same syllable by a vowel ; or when it is followed 



DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 11 

in the same syllable by a vowel not sounded; as, boy, lowly; growth 

sylph; style, owe. In every other position w or y is a consonant. 

BxSBCIBB. — Mention the vowels and the consonants in tbo following 
words, and give the reasons: — Animal, muslin, grammar, thousand, moun- 
tain, happiness, board, Bchooij arithmetic, December, bread, wondor, 
beware, dwell, youth, destiny, myrtle, sympathy, knowledge, lawyer, 
strength, journey, phlegm, plague, weigh. 

DirHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 

When two vowels are used to represent one sound, they 
form what is called a Diphthong ; as oa in load; oi in voice. 

There are two kinds of diphthongs; Proper and Improper. 

A Proper Diphthong is one in which both vowels are sounded; as, 
on m mouse; oy in joyful. There are four proper diphthongs; oi, 
on. oy, and ow. 

An Improper Diphthong is one in which but one of the vowels is 
sounded; as, ea in beat ; eu in neuter. 

When three vowels are used to represent one sound, 
they form what is called a Triphthong; as, eau in beauty ; 
icw in vu w. 

s There are two kinds of triphthongs ; Proper and Improper. 

A Proper Triphthong is one in which all three vowels arc sounded ; 
as, uoy in buoy. 

An Improper Triphthong is one in which but one or two of the 
vowel- are sounded; as eye, and ieu in lieu. The principal improper 
triphthongs are, ieu, eau, iew. 

The consonant q is always followed by u; when so 
placed, u is never considered as part of a diphthong or 
a triphthong. 

BlllC . tion the proper and the improper diphthongs and 

triphthong* in the following words, and give the reasons: — Moai 
employ, outset, beauty, though, plough, review, chair, growling, 
lieu, slaughter, new?, learn, coast, thief, loud, buoy, quoit, i 
gTacious, herbaceous, onUie, broad, heroes, receive, ocean, bcaus. 



1 2 CONSONANTS — SYLLABLES — WORDS . 

CONSONANTS. 
A Consonant is a letter which represents a sound that 
can be perfectly made only with the aid of a vowel. 

The consonants are divided into two classes ; Semi-vowels and 

Mutes. 

Semi-vowels are letters which can be imperfectly sounded without 
the aid of a vowel ; as, c, j, v, y. 

They are c soft, f, g soft, h, j, Z, ra, n, r, 5, v, to, x, y, and z. 

C has its soft sound (the sound of s) before e, i, and y ; before 
other letters it has the sound of 7c. 

G has its soft sound (the sound of j) before e, t, and y; there are, 
however, some exceptions. 

Four of the semi-vowels, Z, ra, n, and r, are called Liquids, on 
account of their smooth and flowing sound. 

Mutes are letters which can not be sounded without the aid of a 
vowel ; as, p, q, t, Tc. 

They are 6, c hard, d, g hard, k, p, q, and t. 

SYLLABLES, 

A Syllable is a letter or a number of letters, which, 
when uttered, form one sound ; as, far, a-far y com-mence. 

A syllable may be either a word or a part of a word ; it always 
contains a vowel, — or, when spoken, a vowel sound. 

WOEDS. 

A Written Word, is a letter, or a number of letters pro- 
perly combined, used as the sign of some idea ; as, J, day, 
army. 

A Spoken Word is a sound, or a combination of sounds, 
used to express some idea. 

Words are named according to the number of syllables which they 
contain. 

A word which contains one syllable is called a Mono- 
syllable; as, truth: one which contains two syllables is 



DIVISION OF WORDS — SPELLING — RULES, ETC. 13 

Sailed a Dissyllable; as, truthful: one which contains 
three syllables is called a Trisyllable; as, nntruiliful: one 
which contains more than three syllables is called a Poly- 
syllable; as, untruthjuhiess, incomprehensible. 

DIVISION OF WORDS. 

Words are divided according to their formation into Simple, or 
Compound; Primitive, or Derivative. 

A Simple Word is one which is not formed by uniting two or more 
words; as, hand, paper, father* 

A Compound Word is one which is formed by the union of two or 
more simple words; as, hand-machine, newspaper? The words form- 
ing a compound are sometimes connected by the hyphen (-); as, 
father-in-law, 

A Primitive Word is one which is formed from no other word, and 
is in its first or simplest form ; as, sin, wind, lady. 

A Derivative Word is one which is formed from a primitive word 
by some change, or by prefixing or suffixing another syllable or 
word; as, sinful, windy, lady-like. 

Exercise. — Tell to which of the above divisions each of the following 
words belongs, and give the reason: — Breakfast, fleetness, spice, lover, 
within, uneasy, self-taught, teach, statesman, write, movable, president, 
circle, prison-ship, copying, useful, store-house, citizen, chief, harmed, 
certain, poet, penman, outlaw, evergreen, star-gazer. 

SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of combining letters properly, to form 
syllables and words. This art is best learned from spelling- 
rod dictionaries, and from habits of observation in 
: ng. 

RULES OF SPELLING. 

Monosyllables. — 1. The final Letter of a monosyllable ending 
withy! L ' r 8j preceded l-y a owel, is doubled ; as, muff, l>ill, 



14 RULES OP SPELLING. 

2. The final letter of a monosyllable ending with any other con- 
sonant than c /*, /, or s, is not doubled; as, bar, rag, rod. 

Exceptions. — Clef, if of; nil, sol; as, gas, has, was, yes, his, 
is, us, pus, thus; ebb; add, odd; egg ; inn, bunn; burr, err? butt; 

buzz, fuzz. 

Exercise. — Apply the rule for spelling each of the following words, and 
correct all false orthography : — Mil, uss, eg, hass, clef, carr, tel, fiz, 
fil, ad, nodd, pas, fuz, pur, mis, was, robb, hill, war. 

Doubling the Final Consonant. — 1. The final consonant 
of a monosyllable, or of a word accented on the last syllable, ending 
with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, is doubled on 
receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, hot, hotter: occur, 
occurring; transfer, transferring. 

2. The final consonant is not doubled, if it is not preceded by a 
single vowel, if it is preceded by one or more consonants, or if the 
accent is not on the last syllable ; as, toil, toiling ; sound, sounded; 
differ, different. 

Final x is never doubled, being equivalent to the two consonants 
ks or gz; &s,fx, fixed; tax, taxing. 

The spelling of derivatives from words ending with single I is 
variable. Some writers double the I even in words not accented on 
the last syllable; while others strictly follow the rule. It is prefer- 
able to follow the general rule; as, travel, traveler. 

Exercise. — Apply the rule in forming each of the following words: — 
Suffix ed to tap, tax, incur, inter, retreat, enter; ing to sound, ac- 
quit, recruit, shed, drip, shoot; er to cool, loud, work, mix, labor j 
let to novel, art, special, humor; ent to excel, depend, concur. 

Final E. — 1. In words ending with silent e, e is generally omitted 
on receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, move, movable; 
love, loved; able, abler. 

In words ending with ce or ge, e is retained before terminations 
beginning with a, o, or u, in order to preserve the soft sounds of c 
and g ; as, trace, traceable; courage, courageous. 

In words ending with ie, e is omitted and i changed into y before 
the termination ing, in order to prevent the doubling of i; as, tie, 
tying; belie, belying. 

E is retained in dye, singe, springe, swinge, tinge, hoe, shoe, and 
toe, before the termination ing; as, dye, dyeing ; shoe, shoeing. 



RULES OF SrELLING. 15 

2. In words ending with silent e, e\* generally retained on receiving 

a suffix beginning with a consonant ; as, dire, direful; care, careless. 

The following words are exceptions: — Abridgment, acknowledge 

. argument, judgment, duly, truly, awful, nursling, wisdom, 
wholly. 

Exercise. — Apply the rule in forming each of the following words: — 
Suffix ing or ed to rage, untie, hoe, die, dye, sing, singe, budge; able 
to service, manage, peace, charge, notice, change; ible to force, sense, re- 
verse; ment to refine, commence, advance, induce; hj to wide, safe, rude, 
sage, true, due. 

Words ending witu Y. — 1. In words ending with y pre- 
ceded by a consonant, y is changed into i on receiving one or more 
suffixed letters or syllables; as, try, tries; lively, liveliest. 

I' is not changed into i before the termination ing; as, dry, dry- 
ing; rely, relying. 

2. In words ending with y preceded by a vowel, y is retained on 
receiving one or more suffixed letters or syllables ; as, money, moneys; 
ul; pay. payable. 

Paid from pay, raid from lay, said and saitli from say, staid from 
Stay, and daily from day, are exceptions. 

Exercise. — Apply the rule in forming each of the following words: — 
Suffix ed to pry, deny: cs to lady, dry, fancy, try; ly to greedy, lazy, day, 
hung : ing to rely, ally, cry, defy, enjoy, pay, obey; ish to boy, 

gray"; ed to convey, employ, waylay, prepay. 

Words ending wiTn a Double Letter. — In words end- 
ing with any double letter except I, the double letter is retained on 
iving a -affix which does not commence with the same letter; 
Wkpii irclessly. 

EllROl ly the rule in forming each of the following words: — 

Suffix . purr, buzz; hj to full, stiff; es to pass, dress, moss; 

e#t to tall, dull, gross. 

Compounds. — In e mponnd words, the simple words from which 
lly spelled in the same manner as when 
i. !> vymasier. 
In word ; with V. < en dropped when forming pari 

of a compound or re word; atj all, also; till, unfit; except 

gUsjnce, and a few oth< 



16 KULES OF SPELLING — EXERCISES. 

Exercise. — Apply the rule in forming each of the following words:— 
Suffix full to sin, cup, play; prefix all to mighty, so, ways, spice. Write 
compounds from pen and knife; heart and felt; eye and sight; salt and 
cellar. Form and write ten other compounds. 

General Exercise I. — Apply the rules in the correction of the 
following words : — 

Spil, expresing, staf, stifness, joiful, od, holyness, arriveal, cryed, 
novellist, drumer, payed, thiner, beatting, wholely, shamefull, carpet- 
ting, dieing, mixxing, poundded, chargable, hoing, hieed, bel-ringer, 
sprigy, counsellor, biassing, acquiting, recruitting, boilled, inferrence, 
mouthfull, peacable, hotest, judgement, impeled, defyed, allso, steadyly, 
untill, noticable, inducment, studys, vallies, ceasless, wittyly, wellfare, 
bruteish, moveable, armys, reasonner, senseible, benefitted. 

General Exercise II. — Correct the spelling in the following sen- 
tences, and apply the rule for each correction : — 

Artfull practices should be avoided. Never expect to obtain true happy- 
ness without virtue. The vallies among those cheerles mountains are not 
often visitted by the raies of the sun. I can not go untill the expres-train 
shall have arrived. The surly fellow answered grufly to my playfull remark. 
The soldier displaid great courage on the battle-field. The armys were well 
supplyed with wholsome food. The arguement of the lawyer proved the 
shamefull conduct of the prisoner. Bad beginings somtimes end in succes. 
The rogueish boies were caught stealling the neighbor's apples. * 

We can not injure others without injureing ourselves. The commitee re- 
fused to sign the bill which was refered to them. The recruitting officer ac- 
quited the soldier of the charge of desertion. Although he was the hum- 
bleest of the unhappy queen's followers, yet he remainned faithful untill 
the last moment. Our chimnies are very smokey in winddy weather. As ho 
payed no attention to his speling he wass unable to rise in his clas. Be 
careful to shunn the company of the silly and viceious. A spent bal wounded 
two officers of his staf while standding near him. The battle which fol- 
lowed was one of the bloodyest of the warr. 

Truthfullnes is better than mere refinment of manners. His palness was 
attributeable to his excesive fright. Dayly newspapers were a great rarity 
a hundred years ago. Delaies are usually dangerous. The culprit was re- 
lieved of his handcufs. Flocks of wild turkies are now seldom seen. The 
smaler of the two books is to be prefered. Clouds envelopped the tops of the 
mountains. This gloryous news has fullGled our highest hopes. You are 
inexcuseable for makeing such mistakes as these. Carlesness is allways de 
serving of censure. 



Part Second. 
ETYMOLOGY. 



Etymology treats of Words, teaches how to classify 
them, and shows their changes of form and meaning. 

W< irdfl are Classified, Inflected, and Derived. 

To Classify words is to arrange them in classes according to their 
meaning and use. (See below.) 

To Inflect words is to change their forms, so as to show their rela- 
to other words. (See pages 31, etc.) 

T Derive words is to trace them from their primitive forms and 
meanii 

All that is at present necessary to be known of the origin and of 
the different forms of words, has been given under " Divisions of 
Words." (See page 13.) Further information must be gained from 
books on this subject, as it can not be fully treated of in grammar. 

CLASSES OP WOKDS. 

Words are divided into nine classes, called the Parts 
of Speech. 

The Parts of Speech are the Noun, the Pronoun, the 
Article, the Adjective, the Verb, the Adverb, the 
Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Interjection. 

THE DEFINITIONS OP THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 

A Noun is a word used as the name of any thing; as, 

Washington, country, bandy, xoul. 

2 17 



18 DEFINITIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun; as, 
" Henry loves his books ; he studies his lessons well." 

An Article is the word the, or a or an, which is placed 
before a noun to limit its meaning; as, The star; a house; 
cm insect. 

An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit a noun 
cr a pronoun; as, A sweet apple; many books; "He is 

good" 

A Verb is a word used to assert action, being, or state; 
as, " James runs" — " He does something." — " I am here." 
— " The child sleeps." 

An Adverb is a word used to qualify a verb, an ad- 
jective, or another adverb; as, "He is very industrious, 
and advances rapidly in his studies." 

A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pro- 
noun to show its relation to some preceding word; as, 
" The boy went with his father to the library." 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect the words, the 
parts of a sentence, or the sentences, between which it is 
placed ; as, " He is patient and happy, because he is a 
Christian." 

An Interjection is a word used in exclamation, to ex- 
press some emotion of the mind ; as, 11a ! pshaw ! alas ! 

Two or more of these parts of speech are always used, in combi- 
nation to form a sentence ; one of these must be a (finite) verb. 

A Sentence, then, is two or more words go combined as to make 
complete sense. 

ntences constitute distinct and separate portions of spoken or 
written language. 

Larger portions of written language composed of two or more 
sentences are called paragraphs, chapters, etc. One sentence, bow- 
ever, may sometimes constitute a paragraph. 




CLASSES OF NOUNS — DIVISIONS OF COMMON NOUNS. 19 



NOUNS. 



A Noun is a word used as the name of any thing j 
Anna, boy, girl, river, truth. 

Words used as the names of letters, words, figures, signs, etc., are 
noun- ; a-. " K L8 a vowel." — " The t is not crossed." — " + indicates 
addition." — " Good is an adjective." 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 
Noons are divided into two general classes; Proper 
and Common. 

A Proper Noun is a word used as the name of a particu- 
lar object or collection of objects, to distinguish it from 
others of the same class ; as, John, Troy, Ohio, the Alps. 

A Common Noun is a word used as the name of any 
object or collection of objects of the same class; as ; man, 
city, rir vn tains. 

A noun is called Complex, when it is formed of two or more words 
not unit"l. a ler as a name; as, Dead Sea, Chief Justice 

' Wellington. 

A doud is called Compound, when it is formed of two or more words 
united, used as a Dame; as, win, landlord, man-of-war. 

BB( [SB. — Tell to which clot* each of the following nouru belongs, 
and give the reason : — William Shakspeare, islands, word, North Ame- 
rica, July, season, year. Prince Albert, Sir John Franklin, man- 
eater, army, It at Monroe, 
animal, Jew, Bahamas, the Jews, foeman. 

CLASSES OF COMMON NOUNS. 

moon nouns are sometimes divided into four classes; Collective 
Verbal, Abstract, and Diminutive. 

t 



20 PROPERTIES OF NOUNS — NUMBER. 

A Collective Noun is a word used as the name of a collection of 
beings or of things, regarded as a unit ; as, family, herd, class. 

A Verbal Noun is a form of the verb which is used as the name of 
an action or of a state of being. It always ends with ing ; as, read- 
ing, writing, sleeping. A Verbal noun is also called a Participial noun. 

An Abstract Noun is a word used as the name of a quality be- 
longing to an object; as, redness, heat, wisdom. This quality is 
always considered apart from the object which possesses it. 

A Diminutive Noun is a derivative word used as the name of an 
object which is smaller than that denoted by the primitive word; as, 
flower, floweret; hill, hillock. 

Exercise. — Tell to which class of common nouns each of the following 
belongs, and give the reason : — Teaching, circlet, greatness, flock, leaflet, 
group, happiness, manikin, school, swimming, globule, swarm, 
duckling, purity, piety, squadron, truth, ignorance, lying, rivulet, 
streamlet, congress, meeting, coronet, honesty, nation, honor. 



PEOPEETIES 01 NOUNS. ■ 

Property, in Grammar, means a peculiar quality belong- 
ing to any part of speech. 

Nouns have four properties ; Number, Person, Gender, 
and Case. 

UUMBEK. 

Number is that property of a noun which denotes whether 
one or more than one object or collection of objects are 
meant. 

Nouns have two numbers ; the Singular and the Plural, 

The Singular Number denotes one object, or a collection 
of objects considered as a unit; as, desk, bench, nation 
flock. 

The Plural Number denotes more than one object or coL 
lection of objects; as, desks, benches, nations, flocks. 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 21 



FOEMATION OP THE PLURAL. 

Nouns generally become plural by the suffixing of s 
to the singular; as, sing, home, plur. home*; key, keys; 
ros : cloek, clocks; cameo, cameos. 

I This rule always applies to nouns ending with o, it, or y, imme- 
diately preceded by a vowel; as, fray, bays; trio, trios; purlieu, 

''US. 

i N«»uns ending with c7i (not sounded as &), 5, s7i, x, or 2, become 
plural by the suffixing of es to the singular; as, bunch, bunches ; gas, 
gases; sash, sashes ; fox, foxes ; waltz, waltzes. 

Nouns ending with y immediately preceded by a consonant, be- 
came plural by the change of y into % and the suffixing of es; as, 
study, studies; army, armies. 

ne nouns ending with single f or fe, become plural by the 
change of f into v and the suffixing of es ; as, life, lives; thief, 

These nouns are beef calf elf, half, leaf, loaf, self, sheaf shelf, 
thief, wolf, knife, life, wife. 

Other nouns ending with single f or fe, become plural by the 
general rule ; but wharf has two forms of the plural, wharfs and 
who 

\ (una ending with ff, become plural by the general rule ; as, muff, 
muffs; but staff, meaning a cane, has staves for the plural; its com 
pounds, however, become plural by the suffixing of s only; as, flag* 
staj) \ffs. 

Nouns ending with o preceded by a consonant, differ in the forma- 
tion of the plural. Some become plural by the suffixing of es ; 
others by the suffixing of s only: the former mode is preferable. 

The following become plural by the suffixing of es: barricado, 
bravado, buffalo, calico, cargo, desperado, echo, flamingo, hero, mango, 
manifesto, motto, mulatto, negro, potato, stiletto, tomato, tornado, 
B few others. 

The following commonly become plural by the suffixing of s only: 
armadillo, canto, cento, duodecimo, grotto, halo, junto, memento, octavo, 
arto, rotundo, salvo, sirocco, solo, tyro, zero, and a 
few othc 

When proper nouns become plurrJ they follow the analogy of 
common nouns: as, William, Willia mo ; Adams, Adamses ; Carolina, 
Carolinas ; Cato. Cafos. 



22 FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

The formation of the plural of proper nouns ending with y pre- 
cox wd by a consonant, is not settled, Some writers suffix s to for an 
the plural ; others follow the rule for common nouns ; as, Henrys or 
Jf> nries; Marys or Maries: the latter mode is preferable. 

Exercis e. — Apply the rules in forming the plural of the following nouns :~ 

Mode l. — Ladj}. — The plural of lady is ladies. — " Lady" is anoun ending 
with y immediately preceded by a consonant; therefore the plural is formed 
by the change of y into i and the suffixing of es, according to the rule, " Nouns 
ending with y immediately preceded by a consonant, become plural, etc." 

Folio, crutch, class, piano, brush, sex, topaz, sentry, monarch, 
loaf, chief, strife, tipstaff, puff, calico, fife, roof, tomato, quiz, tax, 
studio, chimney, echo, essay, canto, factory, grief, distich, wife, shelf, 
surf, scratch, staff (a body of officers), colloquy, buoy, Virginia, Venus, 
Nero, Alleghany, Mary, Wolsey, Charles, Sicily. 



THE IRREGULAR FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

The following nouns have irregular plurals : — 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

Man, men. Foot, feet. Goose, 



I 



Child, children. 


Tooth, 


teeth. 


Louse, 


lice. 


Woman, women. 


Ox, 


oxen. 


Mouse, 


mice 



The following nouns have both regular and irregular 
plurals, but with different meanings : — 

Sing. Regular Plural. Irregular Plural. 

Brother, brothers (of a family), brethren (of a society). 

Die, dies [stamps for coining), dice (blocks for gaming). 

Genius, geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits). 

Index, indexes (tables of reference), indices (exponents). 

Penny, pennies (coins), pence (amount of value). 

Pea, peas (seeds), pease (the species). 

Cow, cows (individual animals), kine (the kind). 

Sow, sows (individual animals), swine (the kind). 

THE PLURAL OF COMPOUND NOUNS. 

Compound nouns in which the first part describes the last, have 
the last word made plural; as, field-mouse, field-mice; fellow- 
servant, fellow-servants ; statesman, statesmen,. 

The compound nouns in which the first part is described by the 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 23 

last, have the first part made plural; as, commandcr-in-cliicf com- 
11 manders-in-chief; looker-on, lookers-on; aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp, 
' r Compounds which have all their parts of equal importance, or 
which are taken from foreign languages, become plural like simple 
words; as. piano-forte, piano-fortes; sine-gua?non, sine-qua-nons. 
Some compound nouns have both parts plural; as, man-child, 
I men-children: woman-singer, women-singers, 

' All nouns ending with the Byllable man arc not compounds of the 
li word "man;" as, Turcoman, German, talisman, Ottoman, etc. These 
me plural by the suffixing of s. 

Exercise. — Form the plural of each of the following compound nouns, 
; and apply the rule: — Coachful, landlady, major-general, ox-chain, 
maid-uf-all-work, goose-feather, step-son, sister-in-law, hanger-on, 
attorney-general, .do-little, tooth-brush, sales-woman, statesman, knight- 
errant, penny-a-liner, vade-mecum, alderman, boot-maker, club-foot, 
man-of-war, chimney-sweep, fac-totum, hair-dresser, errand-boy. 



. 



THE PLURAL OF COMPLEX PROPER NOUNS. 



When a complex proper noun, with or "without a title prefixed, is 
I in reference to a class of individuals, it becomes plural, and the 
sign of the plural is suffixed to the last word only ; as, "The Sir Isaac 
Ki ns of every science." — "The Oliver Cromwells of history." 

When a title is prefixed to a proper noun used as the name of 
more than one individual, the title is made plural; as, The Messrs, 
Smith ; the Misses Janvier; the Doctors Rush, 

When a title is common to several different names, the title is 
made plural ; as, Messrs. Sower, Barnes and Potts ; Senators Clay 
and Webster. 

When a definite number of individuals of the same name and 
title is mentioned, the name only becomes plural ; as, The three 
Bliss Brownings', the two Doctor Parrishes; the eighteen King 
i nee. 

Mrs., the sign of the plural is suffixed to the last 
name ; a Mrs. Joneses. 

When two t; iral Dames and of equal importance 

arei plural; a rds Commissioners 

] .nli. 

ExEBCISS. — Give th« proper f"rm of the pWiral of the following com- 
ples proper nouns : —General Scott and Taylor; Lord North and EtlMMell; 



24 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 



Councilor Ilunt and Brady; the Alexander Hamilton of the day; the 
Mrs. Thomas; the Miss Stewart. 

Give the proper form for the following incorrect plurals : — The ten Popes 
Leo; the two Kings Charles of England; the Mrs. Hall; the three 
Misses Brown; Miss Jane and Mary Brown; the Miss Jameses. 



THE PLURAL OF FOREIGN NOUNS. 

By foreign nouns are meant those adopted from foreign languages. 

Some foreign nouns, having come into familiar use, have regular 

English plurals as well as their original plurals. 

The following are the most common: — 

Singular. 

Bandit, 
Beau, 
Cactus, 
Cherub, 



Plural. 
bandits, banditti, 
beaus, beaux, 
cactuses, cacti, 
cherubs, cherubim. 



Encomium, 

Focus, 

Fungus, 

Gymnasium, 

Medium, 

Memorandum, 

Seraph, 

Stamen, 

Virtuoso, 



encomiums, encomia 
focuses, foci, 
funguses, fungi, 
gymnasiums, gymnasia, 
mediums, media, 
memorandums, memoranda, 
seraphs, seraphim, 
stamens, stamina, 
virtuosos, virtuosi. 



Most foreign words used as English nouns still retain their ori- 
ginal plurals; among these are the following: — 



Singular, 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Alumna, 


alumnae. 


Effluvium, 


effluvia. 


Alumnus, 


alumni. 


Ellipsis, 


ellipses. 


Amanuensis, 


amanuenses. 


Emphasis, 


emphases. 


Analysis, 


analyses. 


Erratum, 


errata. 


Antithesis, 


antitheses. 


Genus, 


genera. 


Arcanum, 


arcana. 


Hypothesis, 


hypotheses 


Axis, 


axes. 


Larva, 


larvae. 


Basis, 


bases. 


Madam, 


mesdames. 


Crisis, 


crises. 


Magus, 


magi. 


Datum, 


data. 


Metamorphosis 


, metamorph 


Desideratum, 


desiderata. 


Monsieur, 


messieurs. 


Diaeresis, 


diaereses. 


Nebula, 


nebulae. 



Singular. 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 



25 



/Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural 




oases. 


Stratum, 


strata. 


Parenthesi 


parentheses. 


Terminus, 


termini. 


Phenomenon, 


phenomena. 


Thesis, 


theses. 


Radius, 


radii. 


Vertebra, 


vertebra?. 


Stimulus, 


^stimuli. 







btimuli 



NOUNS NOT USED IN BOTH NUMBERS. 



Some nouns are used in the singular number only. Such are ab- 
stract nouns; the names of metals, virtues, vices, arts, and sciences, 
and of things weighed or measured; as, goodness, gold, wisdom, 
trutlt. , surgery, geometry, sugar, flour. 

Names of sciences ending with ics, as conies, ojjtics, etc., though 
plural in idea and form, are regarded as singular only. 

When different kinds of things weighed or measured are men- 
tioned, the plural form may be used ; as, sugars, teas, wines. 

The nouns alms, molasses, news, are singular only. 

Some nouns are used in the plural number only. The most 
common are annals, archives, ashes, assets, billiards, bitters, cattle, 
clothes, drugs, goods, manners, measles, morals, nuptials, oats, spec- 
ta'bs, thanks, tidings, victuals, wages : also the names of things 
consisting of two parts ; as, compasses, pincers, pantaloons, tongs, 
tweezers, trowsers, scissors, scales. 



NOUNS HAVING THE SAME FORM IN BOTH NUMBERS. 

Some nouns have the same form in both numbers ; as, deer, fish, 
series, shojp, trout, vermin, etc. ; so also nouns denoting a number or 
collection ; as, hundred-weight, couple, dozen, gross, head, pair, score: 
these words may have a plural form ; as, "Dozens of gloves were sold." 

Also such words as amends, means, riches, cannon, sail, etc. 

These words are singular if preceded by a word denoting but one ; 
plural if preceded by a word denoting a number more than one. 



When other parts of speech are used as nouns, they become plural 
like nouns with similar endings; as, "The ins and outs of office." 

Letters and signs used as nouns become plural by the suffixing of 
the apostrophe ('j and s; as, The a's and 6's; the G's and 7V 

Exercise. — Name each noun in the following sentences, and the clcwt 
to which it belongs ; tell its number, and give the reason : — A soft answer 



26 PERSON — GENDER. 

turneth away wrath. We, tho people of the United States, resolve. George 
Washington commanded the Americans at the battle of Brandy wine, Sept. II, 
1777. It is the duty of children to obey their parents. A human soul with- 
out education is like marble in the quarry. Sir Henry Clinton was Comman- 
der-in-Chief of the British army in America, in 1778. The Falls of Niagara 
are in a river of the same name. The wherefores are very plain. 

PEESON. 

Person is that property of a noun which distinguishes 
the speaker or writer, the person or thing addressed, and 
the person or thing mentioned. 

Nouns have three persons ; the First, the Second, and 
the Third. 

The First Person distinguishes the speaker or writer ; 
as, " I, James, will go." 

The Second Person distinguishes the person or thing 
addressed ; as, "James, will you go ?" 

The Third Person distinguishes the person or thing men- 
tioned ; as, "James will go/' — "Leaves fall." 

Nouns are rarely used in the first person: in the majority of 
sentences nouns are in the third person. 

Exercis e. — Tell to what class each noun in the following sentences be- 
longs ; tell its number and person, and give the reasons : — I, Caesar, came, 
saw, and conquered. Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated at the battle of 
Waterloo, June 15, 1815. "Charge, Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!" 
were the last words of Marmion. These are thy works, Parent of Good. A 
good man is a prince of the Almighty/s creation. Thou, a man in fuil vigor 
of mind, shouldst be able to understand the meaning of the expression. 
Arise, countrymen, and let "Liberty" be your watchword. There is ono 
thing that happeneth to the wise man and to the fool. 

GENDEE. 

Gender is that property of nouns whicb distinguishes 
them in regard to sex. 



GENDER. 27 

Nouns have three genders ; the Masculine, the Feminine, 
and the Neuter, 

The Masculine Gender is that which denotes beings of the 
male sex; as, father, king, staff. 

The Feminine Gender is that which denotes beings of the 

female sex; as, mother, queen, hind. 

The Neuter Gender is that which denotes objects that 
are without sex ; as, table, book, mountain, wisdom. 

In nature, there are only two sexes "belonging to persons and 
animals; the male and the female: in grammar, the names of males 
are said to be of the masculine gender, the names of females, to be 
of the feminine gender, and the names of things without life, to be 
of the neuter gender. 

Some nouns, such as parent, child, friend, servant, denote beings 
that may be either male or female : their gender is determined by 
the sense in which they are used ; if females are not especially re- 
ferred to, these nouns are regarded as masculine. 

METHODS OF DISTINGUISHING SEX. 

The sexes are distinguished in three ways; 

1. By the use of different terminations; as, heir, heiress. 

2. By the use of different words; as ; boy, girl. 

S. By forming compound words ; as, man-servant, maid- 
servant. 

1. By the Use of Different Terminations. 

According to this method, feminine nouns are regularly formed 
from masculine nouns, by the suffixing of the terminations ess, ine, 
ix. and others, with or without addition, omission, or change of 
letters in the masculine. 

Masculine. nine. 

tot, abb 

A 

Administrator, ratrix. 

Am 

ter, arbitn 

Auditor, auditr* 



'ine. 


/•' IN i nine. 


Author, 


author. 


Baron, 


baroness. 


Benefactor, 


benefactress. 


i 


catei 


C inductor, 


condud 


Count, 


countess. 



28 


GENDER. 




Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Fiminim. 


Czar, 


czarina. 


Emperor, 


empress. 


Dauphin, 


dauphiness. 


Enchanter, 


enchantress. 


Deacon, 


deaconess. 


Executor, 


executrix, or 


Director, 


directress, or 




executrass. 




directrix. 


Founder, 


foundress. 


Doctor, 


doctress. 


God, 


goddess. 


Idolater, 


idolatress. 


Giant, 


giantess. 


Instructor, 


instructress. 


Governor, 


governess. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Heir, 


heiress. 


Landgrave, 


landgravine. 


Hero, 


heroine. 


Lion, 


lioness. 


Host, 


hostess. 


Marquis, 


marchioness. 


Hunter, 


huntress. 


Mayor, 


mayoress. 


Protector, 


protectress. 


Monitor, 


monitress. 


Shepherd, 


shepherdess. 


Mister (Mr.), 


Mistress (Mrs.). 


Songster, 


songstress. 


Negro, 


negress. 


Sorcerer, 


sorceress. 


Patron, 


patroness. 


Sultan, 


sultan ess, or 


Peer, 


peeress. 




sultana. 


Poet, 


poetess. 


Tailor, 


tailoress. 


Priest, 


priestess. 


Testator, 


testatrix. 


Prince, 


princess. 


Tiger, 


tigress. 


Prior, 


prioress. 


Traitor, 


traitress. 


Prophet, 


prophetess. 


Tutor, 


tutoress. 


Don, 


donna. 


Tyrant, 


tyranness. 


Duke, 


duchess. 


Viscount, 


viscountess. 


Editor, 


editress. 


Votary, 


votaress. 


Elector, 


electress. 


Widower, 


widow. 


2. By the Use of 


' Different Words. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor, 


maid. 


Gander, 


goose. 


Beau, 


belle. 


Hart, 


roe. 


Boy, 


girl. 


Horse, 


mare. 


Brother, 


sister. 


Husband, 


wife. 


Buck, 


doe. 


King, 


queen. 


Bull, 


cow. 


Lad, 


lass. 


Cock, 


hen. 


Lord, 


lady. 


Drake, 


duck. 


Male, 


female. 


Karl, 


countess. 


Master, 


Miss, mistress 


Father, 


mother. 


Milter, 


spawner. 


Friar, monk, 


nun. 


Nephew, 


niece. 







GENDER. 




Masculine, 


IVminine. 




Masculine 


Feminine. 


Papa, 


mamma. 




Son, 


daughter, 


Ram, 


ewe. 




Stag, 


hind. 


Sir, 


madam* 




Uncle, 


aunt. 


Sire, 


dam. 




Wizard 


witch. 



29 






3. By Forming Compound Words. 



Masculine. 

Bridegroom, 

Cock-sparrow, 

Gentleman, 

Grandfather, 

lie-goat, 



Feminine. 

bride. 

hen-sparrow. 

gentlewoman. 

grandmother. 

she-goat. 



Masculine. 

Landlord, 
Man-servant, 

Peacock, 
Step-father, 

Schoolmaster, 



Feminine. 
landlady, 
maid-servant, 
peahen, 
step-mother, 
schoolmistress. 



REMARKS. 

Many masculine nouns have no corresponding feminine ; as, butcher* 
brewer ; some feminine nouns have no corresponding masculine ; as, 
spinster, laundress. 

Gender is attributed to objects without sex when they are ad- 
dressed or mentioned as persons; as, " The ship glides smoothly on 
her (fern.) way." — " The sun shines in his (mas c.) glory." These 
objects are said to be personified. 

Objects that suggest an idea of firmness, power, vastness, sub- 
limity, etc., are personified as males; and objects that suggest an 
idea of gentleness, beauty, timidity, etc., and cities, countries, and 
ships, are personified as females. 

Young children and animals are often referred to as if without 
6ex ; as, " The deer was killed as it (neut.) browsed on the hill-side." 

If the objects composing the unit denoted by a collective noun are 
considered collectively, the noun is said to be of the neuter gender; 
11 The class is large ; it (neuf.) must be divided/' 

If the objects composing the unit denoted by a collective noun are 
considered separately, the noun is said to be of the same gender as 
the individuals that form the collection; as, "The class said that 
the r fem.) wished to Bpeafc to each other." 






EXKRCIS F. — Mention the corresponding masculine or feminine of the fol- 
lowing nonns:- is, Boltan, hunter, grandson, sister-in-law, 
v. lord, mi.—, earl, witoh, emperor, marquis, schoolmaster, executrix, 
duchess, editor, man-servant, testator, hero, nephew, lady, ewe, song.-ter, 
god, sorcerer, hero, donna, czarina, hind, roc. 



3C CASE. 



CASE. 



Case is that property of nouns which distinguishes their 
relations to other words. 

Nouns have three cases ; the Nominative, the Possessive, 
and the Objective. 

The Nominative Case is that which usually denotes the 
subject of a verb; as, "The boy reads." 

The subject of a verb is that of which something is either said or 
asserted. 

The Possessive Case is that which usually denotes pos- 
session or origin ; as ; The boy's book ; Milton's poems. 

The Objective Case is that which usually denotes the object 
of a verb, or of a preposition ; as, " The boy struck his 
sister" — " The apple is sweet to the taste" 

The object of a verb is that upon which the action asserted by 
the verb is exerted. The object of a preposition is the object of the 
relation shown by the preposition. 

THE FORMS OF THE CASES. 

The nominative case and the objective are alike in form. 
They are distinguished from each other by their relations 
to other words. 

The possessive case may always be known by its form. 

The possessive case in the singular number is usually 
formed by suffixing the apostrophe and s ('s) to the nomi- 
native singular ; as, nom. day, poss. day's. 

An apostrophe only is sometimes used to distinguish the possess- 
ive case, when the nominative singular ends with the sound of s and 
the next word begins with the same sound ; as, For conscience 7 sake; 
Jones' store. It is preferable to use both an apostrophe and s in all 
such instances. 

The possessive case in the plural number is formed by 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



31 



suffixing tlie apostrophe only to the nominative plural 
when the nominative plural ends with 8 } and by suffixing 
both the apostrophe and s when the nominative plural does 
not end with s; as, nom. days; poss. days'; nom. men, 

J. nidi's. 

The possessive case of compound words having their parts con- 
nected by the hyphen (-), is formed by suffixing the 's to the end of 
the last word ; as, The ?nan-oJ-wars crew ; the men-of-war's crews ; 
tirf-marti'i/l's sentence. 
In the possessive case of nouns having the same form in both 
numl>eKs, the apostrophe precedes the s in the singular, and follows 
it in the plural, for the sake of distinction ; as, "The deer's horn was 
broken." — "A load of deers' horns was offered for sale." 

The apostrophe and s are not always used as the sign of the pos- 
ve case. They are sometimes used to form the plural of let- 
ters, characters, etc., used as nouns ; as, " His t's were not crossed." 
They are also used to form the singular of some verbs; as, "He 
'4 and con's, and considers the question carefully." 

THE DECLENSION OP NOUNS. 
The Inflection of nouns is called Declension. 

The Declension of nouns is the regular arrangement of 
their numbers and cases. 



Friend, 
friend's, 

(J/>j. friend; 



EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION. 



Singular. 
Ox, Sky, Church, 

sky's, church's, 
ox ; sky ; church ; 



James, Box, 
James's, box's, 
James ; box ; 



Plural. 

. friends, oxen, skies, churches, Jameses, boxes, 

oxen's, skies', churches', Jameses', boxes', 

friends. oxen. skies. churches. Jameses, boxes. 

^ercise I. — Decline the following nouns: — Torch, fox, colony, 

m<«ncy, glaM, foot, wife, lash, OSTgO, trio, Jones, page, study, 

princess, brother-in-law, thief, spoonful, dwarf, mouse, potato. 



32 PARSING. 

Exercise II. — F:>rm the possessive singular and plural of the fol- 
lowing nouns: — Chimney, waltz, country, flag-staff, brush, musk-ox, 
salesman, cupful, German, son-in-law, George Washington, court- 
martial, Robert Morris, Mussulman, commander-in-chief, half, sheep. 

SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 

The subject of a verb may be known by asking the question 
formed by placing who or what before the verb; the answer to the 
question is the subject; as, "John studies." Who studies? John, Here 
John is the subject of the verb studies, and therefore is in the nomi- 
native case. 

The object of a verb, or of a preposition, may be known by asking 
the question formed by placing whom or what after the verb or th 
preposition; the answer to the question will be the object. 

"He struck me." Struck whom? Me. Here me is the object of 
the action expressed by the verb struck, 

"They go to school." To what? School. Here school is '.he 
object of the relation shown by the preposition to. 

Me and school are therefore in the objective case. 

Exercise. — Name the nouns in the nominative, and those in the 
objective case in the following sentences, and give the reasons : — The 
Americans defeated the British at the battle of New Orleans. The stars 
twinkle brightly in the sky. In Prussia, children are compelled to attend 
school. Washington died on the 14th day of December, in the year 1799. 
Many a flower wastes its fragrance on the desert air. By industry only 
can we acquire a good education. Suspicion haunts the guilty mind. The 
study of geometry develops the intellect. 

PASSING. 

To Parse means to tell to what parts of speech words belong, to 
name their properties and relations, and to give the rules which 
apply to them. 

As the rules are given in Syntax only, they may be omitted at 
present in parsing. 

In parsing, it is well to name (1) the w,jrd to be parsed ; (2) the 
word or words with which it is grammatically connected; and (3) its 
properties, relations, etc. 

Exercise. — Parse the nouns in the following sentence: — "The boys 
found a bird's nest in the grove." 



PARSING. 33 

Model s. — Boys. — Boys found. — " Boys" is a common noun, W A No»n i I a 
word, etc."; — a common noun, because it is used as the name of any collection 
of objects of the same class; — in tho plural number, because it denotes more 
than one j — in the third person, because it distinguishes the persons mentioned ; 
— of the masculine gender, because it denotes beings of tho malo sex; — in 
the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb (found). 

JHriV*. — Bird's nest. — u Bird's" is a common noun, "A Noun is a word, etc."; 

— a common noun, because it is used as the name of any object of the same 

; — in the singular number, because it denotes one object; — in the third 

D, because it distinguishes the being mentioned; — of the masculine or 

the feminine gender, because it denotes a being of the male or the female 

sex; — in the possessive case, because it denotes possession. 

*t. — Found nest. — " Nest" is a noun, "A Noun is a word, etc."; — a com- 
mon noun, because it is used as the name of any object of the same class \-~ 
in the singular number, because it denotes one object; — in the third person, 
because it distinguishes the thing mentioned; — of the neuter gender, because 
it denotes an object without sex; — in the objective case, because it is tho 
object of the action asserted or expressed by the verb (found.) 

Grove. — In grove. — u Grove"' is a noun, "A Noun is a word, etc." ; — a common 
noun, because it is used as the name of any object of the same class; — in the 
singular number, because it denotes one object; — in the third person, because 
it distinguishes the thing mentioned ; — of the neuter gender, because it denotes 
an object without sex ; — in the objective case, because it is the object of tho 
relation shown by the preposition {in). 

r^rse the nouns in the following sentences: — Trade increases the wealth 
of a country. Constant occupation prevents temptation. A man's character 
may be known by the books which he reads. A good name should be 
prized above riches. Every person's duty should be performed faithfully. 

During the Revolution the Americans fought for independence. Tho 
'l nest is built among the crags of the mountains. By too great eager- 
ness in thr> pursuit of our desires we frequently grasp at the shadow, and 
nee. A house without books resembles a room without 
windows. Water-lilies bloomed along the borders of the lake. Time spares 
the " "f stone and marble, but time makes sad havoc in 

plaster and its sral Bnuldock's death was caused, not by the In- 

dian's tomahawk, but by a bullet sent by one of his own soldiers. 

"The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herd winds Blowlj o'er the lea, 
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me." 



34 PKOPERTIES OF PRONOUNS — ET3. 



PRONOUNS. 



A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun; as, 
"Thomas deserves praise, for he has recited his lessons 
well." 

In this sentence the word he is used in place of the noun Thomas, 
and his in place of the noun Thomas's; they are therefore called 
pronouns, — a word which means " for nouns. 5 ' 

A pronoun is used to avoid an unpleasant repetition of a noun. 

The noun for which a pronoun is used is called the antecedent of 
the pronoun, because it generally precedes the pronoun, and the 
latter is said to represent its antecedent. 

PEOPEETIES OP PEONOUNS. 

As pronouns represent nouns r they have number, person, 
gender, and ease, as nouns have. They have also declension. 

The number, the person, and the gender of a pronoun are always 
the same as those of the noun which it represents, but the case may 
be different. 



CLASSES OF PEONOUNS. 






Pronouns are divided into three classes; Personal. 
Relative, and Interrogative. 






PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

A Personal Pronoun is one which shows by its form the 
person of the noun which it represents. 

Personal pronouns are Simple or Compound. 

The Simple Personal Pronouns are I, thou, he, she,aud it, 
and their variations in the singular and in the plural. 




PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



35 



I is in the first person, and of the masculine or of the 
feminine gender. 

Thou is in the second person, masculine or feminine 
gender. 

He is in the third person, masculine gender: she is in 
the third person, feminine gender : it is in the third person, 
neuter gender. 

THE DECLENSION OF THE SIMPLE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Singular. 



First Person. 


r.mn. 




Third Person. 




Masc.or Fan. 


r Fan. 


Mate. 


Fcm. 


Neut. 




I, 


Thou, 


He, 


She, 


It, 


Poss. 


my, or 


thy, or 


his, 


her, or 


its, 




. mine, 


thine, 




hers, 




Obj. 


me; 


thee; 


him; 
Plural. 


her; 


it; 




we, 


you, or ye. 


. they, 


they, 


they, 


Pass. 


our, or 


your, or 


their, or 


their, or 


their, or 




ours, 


yours, 


theirs, 


theirs, 


theirs, 


Obj. 


us. 


you. 

1 


them. 
REMARKS. 


them. 


them. 



Personal pronouns in the first and in the second person do not have 
separate forms for the masculine gender and for the feminine : the 
ker and the person or the object addressed are present or well 
known ; therefore their gender is apparent. 

As persons or things mentioned are not necessarily present, differ- 
ent forms are required to indicate their genders. Hence in the third 
n, he is used to represent the masculine, she to represent the 
feminine, and it to represent the neuter. 

}' . formerly common to the nominative and the objective case in 
the plural number, is still retained in the nominative, though 
rarely n& 

In the ] e case, my, thy, her, our, your, their, are used wlien 

the noun denoting the thing mentioned, and wine, thine, 

hers, ours, yours, theirs, when it is omitted; as, "This work is mine." 
— M This is my work.'' 

' ne and thine were formerly used before words beginning with a 



36 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



vowel sound ; as, " All thine iniquities shall be forgiven." These 
forms are still used in poetry; as, "Time writes no wrinkle cm thine 
azure brow." 

The apostrophe (') should never be used in writing the following 
forms of pronouns in the possessive case: hers, its, ours, yours, 
theirs; as, "It is yours," not your 1 s. 

In both numbers the idea of possession is made emphatic by 
using the adjective own in connection with the possessive forms ; as, 
" You choose that course at your own risk." 

In the singular number, second person, the plural forms you, your 
and yours, are commonly used, though but one individual is ad- 
dressed ; as, "John, have you studied your lesson?" 

The form thou is used in prayers to God, in solemn language, and 
in poetry. 

It is often used without representing any particular antecedent ; 
as, " It is raining." — "It is never right to steal." " It" is then used 
indefinitely, and may be called an Indefinite Personal Pronoun. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by subjoining 
in the singular the noun self to the simple personal pro- 
nouns my, thy, him, her, and it; and in the plural, the 
noun selves to our, your, and them. 

The Compound Personal Pronouns are myself, thyself, 
himself, herself, and itself, and their plural forms ourselves, 
yourselves, and themselves. 



Third Person. 
Feminine. 

Herself, 



Neuter. 

Itself, 



THE DECLENSION OF THE COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Singular. 

First Person. Second Person. 

Mate, or Fern. Masc. or Fern. Masculine. 
Nom. Myself, Thyself, Himself, 

Pass. 

himself; 

Plural. 

Nom. ourselves, yourselves, themselves, themselves, themselves, 

Poss. , — 

Obj. ourselves, yourselves, themselves, themselves, themselves 



Obj. myself; thyself; 



herself; itself; 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 37 

The corapcand personal pronouns have no form for the possessive 
case either in the singular or in the plural number. 

The form yourself is commonly used when a single individual 
is addressed; as, "Give yourself no concern," for, "Give thyself no 
concern. " 

Exercise I. — Tell the number, the person, the gender, and the cage, 
of the following pronouns ; — His, themselves, I, its, your, mine, theirs, 
ire, hers, us, you, myself, me, himself, my, herself, thine, them. 

Exercise II. — Parse the personal pronouns in the following sentence 
be boj seemed honest, I employed him." 

If o d I L8. — /. — I (the speaker) employed, — "I" is a personal pronoun, "A 
nal Pronoun is one, etc."; — in the singular number, first person, of the 
or the fern, gender, because the noun (the name of the sjxalccr, not men- 
I) which it represents, is; — in the nominative case, because it is the sub- 
ject of the verb (on ployed). 

Him. — Employed him (boy). — u Him" is a personal pronoun, "A Personal 
Pronoun is one, etc." ; — in tne singular number, third person, of the masc. gen- 
der, because the noun (boy) which it represents, is ; — in the objective case, be- 
cause it is the object of the action expressed by the verb (employed). 

Parse the pronouns in the following sentences : — 

You have done the mischief, and I bear the blame. Love thy neighbor as 
thou lovest thyself. This glorious land is ours. The slanderer only in- 
jured himself in his attempt to injure his neighbor. The soil is noted for its 
fertility: it produces two crops yearly. Keep thy heart with all diligence, 
for cm t of it are the issues of life. Man makes his own language; but he 
makes it as the bee makes her cell, as the bird her nest. My mother began 
to instruct me at an early age; as she had no other child, you may imagine 
how ea.^er she was for my improvement. The boys failed to recite their les- 
sons, but the girls had their task well prepared. 

Exercise II I. — Parse also the nouns in the preceding sentences. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
A Relative Pronoun is one which relates directly to some 
»im or pronoun; as, " Thomas, who came late, 
w;i> not admitted/' — "He who wins, may laugh." 

tiifl have i tie fonns to distinguish the dif- 

nal pronouns have. The person ia deter- 

mined by the antecedent, with which a relative always agrees m 
BBmber, person, and gender. 



38 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

The relative and its antecedent are not contained in the same part 
(or clause) of a sentence; and the part which contains the relative 
is connected by it with the antecedent. 

Relative pronouns are of two kinds; Simple and Com- 
pound. 

SIMPLE RELATIVES. 

The Simple Relative Pronouns are who, which, what, and 
that. 

THE DECLENSION OF THE SIMPLE RELATIVES. 







Sin^ 


jular. 






Nom. 


Who, 


Which, 




What, 


That, 


Poss. 


whose v 


whose, 








Obj. 


whom; 


which ; 




what; 


that; 






Plural. 






Nom. 


who, 


which, 




what, 


that, 


Poss. 


whose, . 


whose, 








Obj. 


whom. 


which. 




what. 


that. 






REMARKS. 







Who is used in referring to persons. It is therefore masculine or 
feminine, according to the gender of its antecedent ; as, " Napoleon, 
who (masc.) was Emperor of France."—" Elizabeth, who {fern.) was 
Queen of England." 

Which is used in referring to inferior animals and to things with- 
out life. It is therefore masculine, feminine, or neuter, according to 
the gender of its antecedent; as, " The deer which (masc. or fern.) 
was killed." — "The flower which (neut.) was plucked." 

What is used in referring to things only. It is therefore always 
of the neuter gender. 

What is equivalent to the thing which (or that which) in the singu- 
lar, and to the things which (or those which) in the plural : thus, 
" He obtained what he wanted," in the singular means, " He obtained 
the thing which he wanted;" and in the plural,- "He obtained the 
things which he wanted." 

What t in meaning, includes' the antecedent (thing) and the rela- 
tive (which) ; it has therefore a double use or connection, and is in 
two cases at the same time ; as, " What he said seemed true." In 
this sentence, what is in the nominative case, being the subject of the 



,erb 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 39 



ave ( 

J/: 



imed; it is also in the objective ease, being the object nf the 
lfi iction expressed by the verb said. 

Sometimes what in each of its constructions may be in the nomina- 
l. ave or in the objective case ; or, in one construction it may be in 
nominative case, and in the other, in the objective. 
'hat is sometimes used in referring to persons, animals, or things, 
of the masculine, the feminine, or the neuter gender, according 
to the gender of its antecedent; as, "The same person that (masc. 
>r fern.) I knew." — " The newest book that (ncut.) he sold." 

That is often used for who, whom, or which; as, "The first boy 
that [who) fails." — "The same man that (whom) we met." — "All 
the money that (which) he had was lost." (l'age 155.) 

COMPOUND RELATIVES. 

The Compound Relative Pronouns are formed by subjoin- 
the word ever or soever to the simple relatives who, 
which, and what. 

The Compound Relatives are whoever, whosoever, which- 
ever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever. 

Ilioso wo? formerly used in the nominative ; it is now obsolete. 
; 



THE DECLENSION OF THE COMPOUND RELATIVES. 



Singular and Plural. 

Xomin Possessive. Ohjective. 

Whoever, whosever, whomever. 

"Whosoever, whosesoever, whomsoever. 

Whichever, whiehever. 

Whichsoever, whichsoever. 

Whatever, whatever. 

Whatsoever, whatsoever. 

REMARKS. 

The goivW of the compound relatives is the Bame as that of the 
simple relatives from which they are formed. 

ver and whosoever are used when reference is made to persons 
only. 

Whichever and whichsoever are used when reference is made to 
■ 

and whatsoever are used when reference is made o 
ly. 



40 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

A compound relative includes, in meaning, an antecedent and a 
simple relative: thus, whoever and whosoever mean any one who; 
whichever and whichsoever mean any one which; and whatever and 
whatsoever mean any thing which, or all things which. 

Compound relatives have a double construction, and (like what) 
are in two cases at the same time; as, " He told whoever heard him 
to obey without delay." Here whoever is in the objective case, being 
the object of the action expressed by the verb told, and is also in the 
nominative case, being the subject of the verb heard. 

Which and what, and their compounds, are called Pronominal 
Adjectives when they limit nouns. (P. 46.) 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

An Interrogative Pronoun is one which is used to ask a 
question ; as, " Who discovered America ?" — " Whose book 
did you find ?" — " Whom did you meet in Paris ?" 

The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, and what 

Whether, meaning which one of the two, was formerly used as an 
interrogative ; but it is now obsolete, as a pronoun. 

The interrogatives are declined like the simple relative pronouns. 

REMARKS. 

Who is used in asking about persons ; as, " Who banished 
Napoleon V — " Who invented gunpowder V 

Which and what are used in asking about persons, animals, or 
things; as, " Which of the men escaped ?" — " Which of the horses 
won the race V — " What is he ? A poet" 

In asking about persons, who inquires for the name of the indi- 
vidual, which for the particular individual meant, and what for a 
description; as, "Whow&s that gentleman? Franklin."— -"Which 
Franklin? Benjamin Franklin." — "IFAatfwashe? A philosopher 
and statesman." 

An interrogative pronoun has no antecedent ; but refers to some 
word in the answer, called the subsequent, with which it agrees in 
number, person, and gender; as, "Who improved the telescope? 
Herschel." 

When used to answer direct or apparent questions, who, which, 
and what, do not relate to any antecedent or subsequent, but are used 
indefinitely, and may be called Indefinite Relative Pronouns, 

When which and what are placed before nouns to ask questions, 
they are called Interrogative Pronominal Adjectives. (P. 46.) 



MODELS FOR PARSING RELATIVES, ETC. 41 

Exercise I. — M opels for Parsing Simple Relatives. 
-" Webster, who died in 1852, was an eminent statesman." 

ler) who died. — "Who" is a relative pronoun, "A Relative 
Pronoun is one, etc.;" it is in the singular number, third person, and of the 
uline gender, beeause its antecedent ( Webster) to which it relates, is; — in 
the nominative case, beeause it is the subject of the verb (died), 
" What he desired was given to him." 

at. — What iras given — desired what. — "What" is a relative pronoun, "A 
Relative Pronoun is one, etc.." and. in moaning, includes both antecedent and 
ive {thiixj which); it is in the singular number, third person, and of the 
neuter gender, beeause the noun (not mentioned) to which it relates, is; 
— in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb (was given); it 
so in the objective ease, because it is the object of the action expressed 
by the verb (desired). 

Compound Relatives. — "Men respect whoever tries to do his duty." 
Whoever. — Hespcct whoever — whoever tries. — "Whoever" is a compound 
relative pronoun, "A Compound Relative Pronoun is formed, etc.," and, in 
meaning, includes both antecedent and relative (him who or any one who); it 
is in the singular number, third person, and of the masculine gender, because 
the noun (not mentioned) to which it relates, is; — in the objective case, because 
the object of the action expressed by the verb (respect); it is also in 
the -nominative ease, because it is the subject of the verb (tries). 

Interrogative s. — " Who lost the book ? Mary." 

Who. — (Mary) who lost. — "Who" is an interrogative pronoun, "An Inter- 
rogative Pronoun is one, etc. ;" it is in the singular number, third person, 
and of the feminine gender, to agree with its subsequent (Mary); — in the 
nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb (lost). 

" Which escaped from the prison?" 

'eh. — Which escaped. — " Which" is an interrogative pronoun, "An Inter- 
rogative Pronoun is one, etc. ;" it agrees with some subsequent word (not 
>ned) in some number, person, and gender which cannot be determined; 
—in the nominative case, because it is the subjoct of the verb (escaped). 

definite Relatives. — "He said that ho did not know who 
! ine." 
Who. — Who founded. — "Who" is an indefinite relative pronoun, An In- 
definite Relative Pronoun is one which relates to no word antecedent 01 rabfft* 

quent; its number, person, and gender eannot be determined; — in the nomi- 
native case, because it is the subject of the verb (founded). 

4? 



42 ARTICLES. 

Parse all the relatives and the interrogative pronouns jn the following 
sentences: — He who is truthful, is trusted. The field which was ploughed, 
now waves with ripening grain. The fire which the hunters lighted, burned 
the dry grass of the prairie. The sun disperses the clouds which obscured 
his rising. Who invented the steam-engine? James Watt. Pope says, 
"Whatever is, is right." What did Newton discover? Who first landed on 
the shores of North America? He forgets who burned Moscow. What did 
the man say? I did not hear what he said. Do with thy might whatso- 
ever thy duty demands. The first man that proposed the law, violated it. 
The wisdom which the Bible teaches, should be treasured in the heart. 

The happiness which a good conscience gives, is superior to all earthly 
enjoyment. He prayeth well, who loveth well. Whoever sows, shall reap. 
The injuries which we inflict, and the injuries which we suffer, are seldom 
weighed in the same balance. The man and the horse that attempted to cross 
the swollen stream, were swept away and drowned. The sword of wit, like 
the scythe of time, cuts down friend and foe, and attacks every thing that 
lies in its way. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the nouns and the personal pronouns in the fore- 
going sentences. Write sentences containing different kinds of pronouns. 



ARTICLES. 



An Article is the word the, or a or cm, which is placed 
before a noun to limit its meaning ; as, The sun, the earth; 
an eagle, a man. 

There are two articles ; The, and A or An. 

The is called the Definite Article, because it shows that 
some object or collection of objects is referred to in a 
definite manner ; as, The Revolution, the army, the cities. 

A is called the Indefinite Article, because it shows that 
an object is referred to in an indefinite manner; as, A. 
battle, an army, a book. 

The definite article may refer to one object or group, or to more 
than one ; as, The tree, the trees; the army, the armies. 



EXERCISES. 43 

Ihe indefinite article can refer to one object, or to tic gru\p only; 
nan, an army. 
ad an are the same in meaning, but they differ in use. 

before words which, when uttered, begin with a vowel 
acorn, an honor. An is also aged before words which 
n with h and are accented on the second syllable; as, An his- 
-ay. 
A is used before words which, when uttered, begin with a con- 
sonant sound; as, A watch, a unit, a youth. 

I brcise I. — Tell before which of the following words a should bo used, 
which an should be used, and give the reasons: — Apple, ear, entry, 

r. horse, Indian, onion, union, European, watch, youth, unit, 
rella, orchard, ewer, iron, power, hour, history, yew, humane, 

hero, heroic, hickory, hiatus, unfitness, usurper. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the articles in the following sentence : — 
he child draws a coach." 

M o r> e t. s. — The. — The child. — " The" is an article ; "An Article is a word, 
: — the definite article, because it shows that the noun child is used in a 
definite sense. 

A. — A coach. — ,f A" is an article; "An Article is a word, etc."; — the in- 
definite article, because it shows that the noun coach is used in an indefinite 
sense. 

Parse the articles in the following sentences: — 

An amusing story was read to the children. The sun shines during the 
day. The old peddler sat upon a stone by the wayside. The conduct of an 
: able boy should be imitated. A rose plucked from the bush will soon 
droop. The spring clothes the earth with beauty. An honest boy will 
never hesitate to tell the truth, whatever consequences may happen to him. 
The humane act of the merchant gained him friends. A mist arose from tho 
Talloy. and formed a cloud which hung over the top of the mountain. The 
▼e has carried the useful arts to a high degree of perfection. A 
heavy fall of snow rendered the roads impassable for many days. 

r 1 1. — Parse all the nouns and the pronouns in the preceding 
sentences. 

ERCI8E IV. — Write ten sentences, each containing tho indefinite 
art cle a or an properly used. 



44 CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 



ADJECTIVES. 



An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit a 
noun or a pronoun; as, Ripe apples; three wise men; 
unhappy me. 

CLASSES OP ADJECTIVES, 

Adjectives may be divided into the following classes: 
Proper, Common, Numeral, and Pronominal. 

A Proper Adjective is one derived from a proper noun; 
as, American, English, Newtonian. 

A Common Adjective is one which describes or limits a 
noun or a pronoun, but which is not derived from a 
proper noun ; as, honest, numerous, perfect 

A Numeral Adjective is one which denotes a definite 
number; as, two, third, single. 

Numeral adjectives are of three kinds; Cardinal, Ordinal, and 
Multiplicative. 

The Cardinals denote how many; as, nine, ninety. 

The Ordinals denote order; as, ninth, ninetieth. 

The Multiplicatives denote how many fold; as, single, double or 
twofold, triple or threefold. 

REMARKS. 

Adjectives, like nouns, may be compound in form; as, Sweet- 
scented clover ; home-made bread ; the Anglo-Saxon race. 

Most numeral adjectives may be regarded as complex in form; as, 
One hundred and nine dollars; the two hundred and tenth page. 

A noun becomes an adjective when it is used to describe another 
noun ; as, Gold chain, Croton water, iron castings. 

Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, and, as suchyhave all the 
properties of nouns; as, " The good will be rewarded." — " The little 
that he Lad, was lost ;" thousands of dollars ; our inferiors. 






PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 45 

XERCis i:. — Name the adjectives in tho following sentences, tell to which 

each belongs, and giye the reasons: — 

'he ripe grain waa cut. A single mistake may cause a great loss. The 

off the Siberian squirrel is sold at exorbitant prices. Spain was once 

the Moorish dominion. The solemn crow was perched upon tho leafless 

h of the aged elm. Now come the soft, smoky days of delightful 

weather, which will soon be followed by the sharp blasts of bleak December. 

tiding sentences should not be used in common conversation. Fifty 

four dollars were found in a secret drawer. Jefferson oud Adams died on 

the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of American Independence. I 

fcever knew an early -rising, hard-working, prudent man, careful of his 

js, and strictly honest, who complained of bad luck. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

A Pronominal Adjective is one which either limits a 
noun mentioned, or represents a noun understood; as ; "This 
task is difficult."— " This is a difficult task." 

In the first example, this "limits" the noun task, and is used as 
an adjective ; in the second, this "represents" the noun task, and is 
used as a pronoun. 

A pronominal adjective may be parsed as an adjective when the 
noun is mentioned, and as a pronoun when the noun is omitted; 
or the noun may be supplied and the pronominal may always be 
3ed as an adjective simply. 

Pronominal adjectives are of three kinds; Distributive, 
Demonstrative, and Indefinite. 
The Distributive Pronominal Adjectives are so called 
ause they limit or represent the names of objects taken 
■eparately or singly. 

The principal cUdributivcs are each, every, either, and 

r. 
They always refer to nouns in the singular number. 

The Demonstrative Pronominal Adjectives are so called 
because they limit or represent particular nouns. 

The principal di monstratives are this, that, these, and those. 

This and thai refer to nouna in the singular number, these and 
those, to nouns in the plural numbe* 



46 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, ETC. 

The Indefinite Pronominal Adjectives are so called because 
they limit or represent nouns in an indefinite manner. 

The principal indefinites are all, another, any, none, one, 
other, some, such. 

REMARKS. 

Another is declined like a noun, in the singular number only. 
One and other are declined in both numbers. 

The following may also be classed among the pronominal adjec- 
tives ; both, enough, few, former, latter, little, less, least, much, many, 
more, most, same, several, and a few others. 

What, whatever, and whatsoever, are often used as relative pro- 
nouns and pronominal adjectives at the same time ; as, " Perform 
cheerfully what duties devolve upon you ;" that is, those duties which 
devolve, etc. When so used they are called Relative Pronominal 
Adjectives. 

Which and what, and their compounds, when placed before nouns 
to ask questions, are called Interrogative Pronominal Adjectives; in 
other cases they are simply Pronominal Adjectives; as, "What 
preparations have been made?" — "The sun gives light by day; 
which fact is obvious." 

A pronominal adjective may sometimes represent a noun which is 
not mentioned; in such cases the gender can not be determined: the 
number and the person are determined by the form, or by the sense 
in which the pronominal adjective is used; as, "All seemed satisfied 
with the explanation." 

Exercise I. — Models for Pronominal Adjectives. 

" These rules include those/' 

These. — These rules. — " These" is a demonstrative pronominal adjective, " A 
Demonstrative Pronominal Adjective is one, etc."; it limits the noun rulers. 

Those. — Those (rules). — " Those" is a demonstrative pronominal adjective, "A 
Demonstrative Pronominal Adjective is one, etc."; — in this sentence it repre- 
sents the noun rules ; it is therefore in the plural number, third person, neuter 
gender; — in the objective case, because it is the object of the action expressed 
by the verb (include). 

Model for Relative Pronominal Adjectives. 

"He used what books he could fnd." 

What. — What hooka — could find what. — "What" is a relative pronominal 
adjective (those which). As a pr )nom. adj. it limits the noun books. Asa 
relative pronoun it relates to the noun books, with which it agrees, in the 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 47 

plural number, third person, neuteT gender; — it is in the objective r?.>,e, be- 
cause it la the object of the action expressed by the verb (could find). 
Parse the pronominal adjectives iu the following sentences: — 

Each hour of every day lias its duties. Thifl method is better than that is. 
The same statement was made by both. Neither criminal confessed his 
guilt. Much can be accomplished by a judicious arrangement of labor. 
All is not gold that glitters. The miser never thinks that ho has enough, 
but is always striving for more. What books are needed for this class? 
All men must die, but all do not die the same death. Which candidate was 
elected? Either of them will please me, although I prefer that one. 

He overcame what difficulties he encountered. I need not say what a field 
of usefulness is before you. Every effort was made to accomplish the purpose, 
but none succeeded. Two men offered themselves; both, on examination, 
were found to be competent, but, as one brought satisfactory recommenda- 
tions, while the other had none to offer, the former was accepted, and the 
latter at length perceived that, in some instances at least, integrity is essen- 
tial to success. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse all the nouns, pronouns, and articles in the pre- 
ceding sentences. 

COMPAKISON OP ADJECTIVES. 
The Inflection of adjectives is called Comparison. 
Many adjectives, chiefly the common adjectives, are 
capable of Comparison. 

The Comparison of an adjective is the changes of its 
form to denote different degrees of quality. 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison; the Posi- 
tive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

The Positive Degree is that form of an adjective which 
is used to denote simply a quality; as, wise, happy, small. 

The Comparative Degree is that form of an adjective 
which La used to denote a higher or a lower quality than 
that expressed by the positive; as, wiser, happier, .smaller. 

The Superlative Degree is that form of an adjective which 
i.- used to denote the highest or the lowest quality of all 
compared; as, toisedj happiest, mialkd. 



48 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



THE FORMATION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 

Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared by suffix- 
ing to the positive er to form the comparative, and est to form 
the superlative; as, pos. sweet, comp. sweeter, sup. sweetest. 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are generally com- 
pared by placing before the positive more or less to form 
the comparative, and most or least to form the superlative; 
as, pos. truthful, comp. more truthful, sup. most truthful; 
pos. pleasant, comp. less pleasant, sup. least pleasant. 

Dissyllables ending with y or e are generally compared 
by suffixing to the positive er to form the comparative, and 
est to form the superlative ; as, pos. happy, comp. happier, 
sup. happiest; pos. simple, comp. simpler, sup. simplest 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly: — 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Good, better, best, 

worse, 



Bad, evil, or ill, 

Much, or many, more, 

Little, less, 



worst. 

most. 

least. 



The following are compared both regularly and irregu- 
larly: — 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Near, nearer, nearest, next. 

Late, later, latter, latest, last. 

Old, older, elder, oldest, eldest. 

The following and a few others have the superlative 
ending with most: — 

Comparative. 

farther, 
former, 
hinder, 
lower, 



Positive. 

Far, 

Fore, 

Hind, 

Low, 

Up, 



upper, 



farthest, farthermost 
first, foremost, 
hindermost, hindmost, 
lowest, lowermost, 
uppermost. 



EXERCISES. 49 



REMARKS. 

Such adjectives as anterior, inferior, previous, superior, ulterior, 

and a few others, suggest the idea of comparison, but do not admit 

rms. 

When a comparison is implied, these adjectives are followed by to, 

A and not by than, as comparatives usually are; as, "This event 

; was anterior to the Revolution." 

Numeral adjectives, most proper and pronominal adjectives, those 
denoting material, position, or shape, and a few others, such as whole, 
universal, exact, supreme, etc., by reason of their use and meaning, 
"• -are not compared. 

] The comparative and the superlative forms of adjectives which 
strictly express qualities incapable of being increased or diminished, 
are frequently used by the best writers and speakers ; as, " We, the 
people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union." 

Exercise I. — Compare such of the following adjectives as admit com- 
parison: — Noble, ill, soft, humble, pleasant, skilful, juicy, sour, 
generous, few, handsome, dry, many, certain, far, old, round, 
acceptable, intelligent, thoughtless, lovely, warm, timid, diligent, 
cheerful, brave, tough, fore, late, circular, ill-mannered, universal, 
lupreme, good-natured, perfect, sad, evil-minded, sure, Roman, near, 
Christian, preferable. 

Exercise II. — Use adjectives before the following nouns, and tell to 
what class each adjective belongs : — Sun, moon, nation, army, lady, 
prairie, rock, tree, lake, Congress, Russia, dollar, eloquence, 
commander, industry, obedience, happiness, war, books, face, pride, 
home, life, tyrant, pleasure, mind, mountain, valley, ocean, bear, 
tiger, deer, rose, lily, Franklin, Napoleon. 

Exercise II I. — Parse the adjectives in the following sentence : — " Few 

1 persons had nobler qualities than the two friends/' 
Models. — Few. — Few persons. — " Few" is a pronominal adjective, "A Pro- 
nominal Adjective is, etc.";— -it can be compared (pos. few, comp./eioer, sup. 
fewest)', — in the positive degree; it limits the noun persons. 

Nobler. — Nobler qualities. — " Nobler" is an adjective, "An Adjective is a 
i word, etc."; — it can be compared (pos. nohle, comp. nobler, sup. noblest) ; — in 
the comparative degree; it describes the noun qualities. 

Two. — Two friends. — " Two" is a numeral adjeotive, "A Numeral Adjective 
t 5 



50 VERBS. 

is one, etc."; cardinal, because it denotes how many; it caanot be com- 
pared ; it limits the noun friends. 

Parse all the adjectives in the following sentences : — 

The swift hound pursues the timid hare. Tall trees cast long shadows, 
Nevada furnishes much silver. The wind roars through the leafless forest. 
Art is long, and time is fleeting. Seven men in ancient Greece were famous 
for their wisdom. This important principle has a threefold application. He 
is unhappy because he has been false. If he were less timid, he would be 
more successful. He paid ten thousand dollars for that farm. English 
literature was very flourishing during the latter half of the sixteenth and 
the first of the seventeenth century. 

Swedish iron is suitable for the manufacture of steel on account of its 
hardness. Had you such leisure to gaze upon these secrets of the deep? 
In what sense are all men born free and equal? Remote from the noise 
of the busy world, in a quiet and secluded nook, stood a vine-clad cottage ; 
a silver stream ran near it; trees in their natural wildness and beauty 
shaded it from the fierce rays of the noon-day sun ; the humble violet and 
the pale-faced lily wafted their delicious perfume on the air. By some 
strange chance the least worthy competitor was chosen. 

Exercise IV. — Parse the nouns, the pronouns, and the articles in the 
foregoing sentences. Write sentences containing different kinds of adjeotives. 



VERBS. 



A Verb is a word used to assert action, being, or state ; 
as, " James runs." — " He does something." — " I am here/'' 
— " The child sleeps" 

No assemblage of words can make complete sense without the use 
of a verb, mentioned or understood ; nor can any sentence be formed 
without a subject, which is either a noun, a pronoun, or a number 
of words taken as a noun, about which something is asserted. 

Exercise. — Name the verbs and their subjects in the following sen- 
tences, and give the reasons : — 

Mode l. — " James studies diligently." — Studies. — James studies. — " Stu- 
dies" is a Verb, "A Verb is a word, etc."; it expresses action. Its subject is 
James, because the action expressed by the verb is asserted of James. 



CLASSES OF VERBS ACCORDING TO MEANING. 51 

The farmer ploughs. Kings rule. John plays. Mary sews neatly. The 
full moon shines. The bird escaped. Flowers bloom in the garden. A deep 
snow fell. The child sleeps soundly. The sun ripens the grain. How swiftly 
the sparrow flies. The sun ri?cs over the hill tops. "Who heard the noise? 
The miser's gold sunk to the bottom. What a terrible accident happened on 
the river! Death is certain. Terror struck him speechless. 

CLASSES OF VEKBS ACCORDING TO MEANING. 
Verbs are divided into two classes according to their use 
or meaning; Transitive and Intransitive. 

A Transitive Verb is one which has an object, or which 
requires an object to complete the sense; as, "He saw the 
eagle." — " The earth hath bubbles, as the water has (bubbles)" 

An Intransitive Verb is one which has no object, or which 
does not require an object to complete the sense; as, 
u Birds fly" — "Truth is mighty." — "He opened his eyes 
and saic" — " Experience teaches better than books." 

REMARKS. 

A transitive verb asserts action only, and such action as is always 
exerted upon some person or thing called the object; as, " The sun 
warms the earth.'' — " The boy struck his friend." 

An intransitive verb asserts being or state, — or action not exerted 
upon any person or thing; as, "The sky is clear." — "The traveler 
sits by the roadside." — " The sun shines." 

Somo verbs, though alike in form, differ in class according to mean- 
ing: a>, u James returned (trans.) the book." — "James returned 
(in trans.) to his home." 

A verb which is usually intransitive sometimes becomes transitive, 
especially when an object is added having a meaning similar to that 
of the verb ; as, " The miser lives a life of care." — "And he dreamed 
vet another dream." 

Intransitive verbs also become transitive when they have a causa- 
five meaning; as, "The company ran an extra train of cars." — 
"The piai and sugar. 93 These expressions are inele- 

gant, bat cast m has authorized theii 

Exercise. — Mention the verbs in the following sentences, and tell which 
are transitive, and which are intranniive; and give the reasons: — 



52 PROPERTIES OF VERBS — VOICE. 

Mode l. — u James studies his lessons, while John is idle." Studx *s. — 
Studies lessons. — " Studies" is a verb, " A Verb is a word, etc." ; — transitive, 
because it has an object (lessons). 

Is. — "Is" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, etc."; — intransitive, because it has 
no object. 

Labor sweetens pleasure. Bonaparte died in exile. The lightning glanced 
from the clouds and struck the oak. While he spoke all listened. The wind 
blew furiously and shook the house. Milton, the poet, became blind. The 
good man departs and leaves a blessing behind. The artist who painted the 
picture deserves praise. Louis Napoleon has written • a " Life of Caesar." 
The rivulet flows with a noiseless current. A man dies, but a nation lives. 
When people are determined to quarrel, a straw will furnish the occasion. 
We mounted our horses and rode homeward. 

PEOPEETIES OF VEEBS. 
The properties of verbs are Voice, Mode, Tense, Num- 
ber, and Person. 

VOICE, 

Voice is that property of a transitive verb which shows 
whether the subject or nominative does or receives the 
action expressed by the verb. 

Voice belongs to transitive verbs only. 

There are two voices j the Active and the Passive. 

The Active Voice is that form of a transitive verb which 
shows that the subject does the action expressed by the 
verb ; as, " Henry carries the basket" 

In this sentence the subject Henry does the action ex- 
pressed by the verb carries. 

The Passive Voice is that form of a transitive verb which 
shows that the subject receives the action expressed by the 
verb ; as, " The basket is carried by Henry." 

In this sentence the subject basket does not act, but it 
receives the action expressed by the verb is carried. 



REMARKS. 

When the active voice of a verb is changed to the passive voice, 
the object of the action expressed by the verb in the active voice 



PROPERTIES OF VERBS — MODE. 53 

always becomes the subject of the verb in the passive yoice, and the 
subject of the verb in the active voice becomes, in the passive, the 
object of the relation lenoted by a preposition ; that is, the subject 
au<l the object exchange cases, the action remaining the same. 

Although intransitive verbs have no voice, yet they have the form 
of the active voice. 

Sometimes an intransitive verb, when followed by a preposition, 
may take the form of the passive voice ; as, " The event was looked 
for. 1 ' — "Virtue is sneered at very often." Was looked for y and is 
'sneered at. are parsed as complex verbs in the passive voice. 

A few intransitive verbs have sometimes the form of the passive 
voice, but the sense is not changed, because the subject remains in 
the nominative case; as, "Summer is gone" for, "Summer has 
gone." — "lie is come" for "He has come." 

Although such expressions are sometimes elegantly used, it ia 
generally better to employ the form of the active voice. 

Exercise. — Name the verb* in the following sentences, tell which are 
transitive and which intransitive, and the voice of each, and give the reasons :— ^ 

Model s. — " He was esteemed because he performed all his duties." 
Wa» esteemed. — u Was esteemed" is a verb, "A Verb is a word which, etc." ; — 
transitive, because the action which it asserts is exerted upon some object ; 
— in the passive voice, because the subject receives the action expressed by 
the verb. 

Performed. — Performed duties. — "Performed" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, 
etc/'; — transitive, because it has an object (duties); — in the active voice, be- 
cause it shows that the subject does the action expressed by the verb. 

He is loved by all. Temperance preserves the body in health. The battle 
was fought on the banks of the river. Attend to your business yourself, if 
you wish it to prosper. The French elected Napoleon. We should improve 
our time by study. His hours were spent in idleness. The scholars write 
correctly. Orthography is taught in spelling-books. The money was 
returned by the borrower. The king returned to his capital. God, who 
made the world, governs it. His wisdom was acquired by bitter experience. 
Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay. Not a berry was found, not a kernel remained. 

MODE, 

Mode is tl at properly of a verb which distinguishes m 
what manner the action, the being, or the state, asserted by 
the verb, is expressed. 

5* 



54 PROPERTIES OF VERBS MODE. 

Verbs have five modes ; the Indicative, the Potential, 
the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. 

The Indicative Mode is that form of the verb which is 

used to express a positive assertion, or to ash a question ; 

as, "Washington commanded the American army." — " Who 

invented the art of printing?" 

A verb in the indicative mode may also express uncertainty or 
contingency; as, "If he has loved" 

The Potential Mode is that form of the verb which is 
used to express possibility, liberty, power, necessity, or 
desire; as, " I can go" — " He must study" 

The potential mode may also be used to ask questions, and to ex- 
press uncertainty or contingency; as, "May I go?" — "If I may go, 
I certainly will." 

The Subjunctive Mode is that form of the verb which is 
used to express the action, the being, or the state, asserted 
by the verb, as desirable, uncertain, or as subject to some 
condition; as, " If he come, he will be received."— " O that 
I were happy I" — " If this be true, all may end well." 

A verb in the subjunctive mode usually depends upon a verb in 
some other mode, and is connected with it by one of the conjunc- 
tions, if, although, unless, except, whether, though, lest, etc. 

The Imperative Mode is that form of the verb which is 
used to express entreaty, permission, command, or exhortation ; 
as, " Attend to my directions." — " Grant my request." — 
" Come when you wish." 

The subject of a verb in the imperative mode, which is either thou 
or you, is usually omitted, but it must be mentioned in parsing. 

The Infinitive Mode is that form of the verb which is 
used to express an action, a being, or a state, which is not 
limited to a subject; as, " To love" — "He tries to study" 

REMARKS. 

A verb is said to he finite when the action, the being, or the state, 
which it asserts, is limited to a subject or nominative. 



PROPERTIES OF VERBS — TENSE, 55 

Verbs in the indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the im- 
perative mode, are finite verbs. 

A verb in the infinitive mode depends upon the word which it 
limits, or completes in meaning, — usually a verb, an adjective, or a 
noun ; as, 44 1 wish to go." — " It is too late to go." — " It is time to go." 

The infinitive mode is often equivalent in its use and meaning to 
a verbal or participial noun; that is, it may be used as a noun in the 
nominative or in the objective case; as, "To play is healthful." — 
f* Children love to play" 

Exercise. — Name the verbs in the following sentences, tell to which 
class each belongs, and its voice and mode, and give the reasons : — 

M o D e l. — M Example teaches better than precept." — Teaches. — * Teaches" 
is a verb, " A Verb is a word, etc." ; intransitive, because it has no object;— 
it has no voice, because it is an intransitive verb; — in the indicative mode, 
because it is used to express a positive assertion. 

Oxen draw carts. A bird can fly. The rain causes the grass to grow. 
I will remain, but you may go. All that live must die. The faithful ser- 
vant should be rewarded. She could have returned whenever she wished. 
He must increase, but I must decrease. If a man strive honestly, he may 
expect to succeed. All this passed much more quickly than I can write it. 
To relieve the poor is a source of pleasure. Love thy neighbor as thyself. 
Whatever you do, do well. Though he fall, he will rise again. It is time 
to go. My son, forget not my law. Mohammed fled from Mecca. The 
fruits are gathered in autumn. The storm began to increase in violence. 
These deer are kept in a nobleman's park. 

TENSE. 

Tense is that property of the verb which distinguishes 
of the action, the being, or the state, asserted by 
the verb. 

There are six tenses ; the Present, the Past, the Future, 
the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the Future 

Perf 

The present, the past, and the future tense represent divisions of 
time into . and future. The other three tenses repre- 

present, past, or future, according to their use or 
eonnectioa with other verbs. 

The Present Tense is that form of the verb which ex- 



56 PROPERTIES OF VERBS — TENfeiS. 

presses present time ; as, " I learn" — " Thou art loved." — - 
" He is writing a letter." 

The present tense denotes what now is, what now takes 
place, or what is now taking place. 

The present tense also denotes what is habitual, or what is always 
true; as, "He said that the earth is round." — "Vice produces 
misery." 

The present tense is often used in narrative to describe more 
vividly what took place in past time ; as, " Napoleon advances with 
his troops and breaks through their ranks." 

The present tense sometimes refers to future time when preceded 
by a relative pronoun, or by when, after, before, as soon as, etc. ; as, 
"He will treat all whom he receives, kindly." — " He will go when he 
becomes ready." 

The Past Tense is that form of the verb which expresses 
past time; as, "He was a good man." — "He fought a 
battle." — " He was dying when I entered." 

The past tense denotes what was, what took place, or 
what was taking place 

The past tense expresses time which is fully past, however recent 
or remote that time may be ; as, " I saw William a moment since." — 
" I saw him yesterday."—" I met him many years ago." 

The Future Tense is that form of the verb which ex- 
presses future time, merely; as, "I shall learn." — " Spring 
will come." 

The future tense denotes what shall or will be, what shall 
or will take place, or what shall or will be taking place. 

The Present Perfect Tense is that form of the verb which 
expresses past time connected with the present; as, " I have 
learned." — "Thou hast been loved." — "He has written a 
letter to-day." 

The present perfect tense denotes what has been, what 
has taken place, or what has been taking place, during a 
period of time of which the present moment is a part. 

The present perfect tense may refer to a past action whose conse- 



TENSE. 57 

quences arc stii. going on, or whose effects are still felt; or it may 
be used in reference to an author whose writings still exist ; as, 
14 Christianity has cirilized many nations." — "Washington has left 
an example which all should delight to follow." — " Shakespeare has 
Written better plays than any other English dramatist." 

The present perfect tense, like the present, sometimes refers to 
future time : as, " Let me know when he has arrived." 

The propriety of the use of either the present, or the present per- 
fect tense, to express future time is, in most instances, quite doubt- 
ful, although such use is common among good writers. It is better 
always to employ the forms of the future and of the future perfect 
tense to express the relations of future time. 

The Past Perfect Tense is that form of the verb which 
expresses past time which is previous to some other past time; 
as, " He had gone, before the messenger arrived." 

The past perfect tense denotes what had been, what had 
taken place, or what had been taking place before some past 
event mentioned. 

The Future Perfect Tense is that form of the verb which 
expresses future time which is previous to some other future 
time ; as, " I shall have finished the task before the close of 
next week" 

The future perfect tense denotes what shall or will have 
/, what shall or will have taken place, or what shall or 
will hare been taking place, before some future event 
, mentioned. 

THE TENSES OF THE DIFFERENT MODES. 

I!he indicative mode has all the tenses. 

The potential mode has four tenses; the present, the past, the 
erfect, and the past perfect. 

The rabjunctive mode has two tenses; the present, and the past. 
The infinitive mode has two tenses; the present, and the present 

The imperative mode has bat one tense; the present. 
The tenses in the indicative mode e iine according to their 

definitions and qualifications as before given. 

The time denoted by verbs in the subjunctive, the potential, the 



58 NUMBER AND PERSON — PARTICIPLES. 

infinitive, and the imperative 'mode, is not definite; nor is it always 
such as the names of the tenses imply ; — it is present, past, or future, 
according to their use or connection with other verbs or forms of verba, 

NUMBEK AND PEKSOIJ. 

Verbs have changes of form to correspond with the 
number and the person of their subjects. 

Verbs, therefore, are said to have two numbers, — the 
Singular and the Plural ; and three persons, — the First, 
the Second, and the Third; thus: — 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

1st Pers. I am, We are, I learn, We learn, 

2d Pers. thou art, you are, thou learnest, you learn, 

Sd Pers. he is ; they are. he learns ; they learn. 

A verb in the infinitive mode has no number or person, because it 
has no subject. 

UNIPERSONAL VERBS. 

Verbs which have but one person are called Unipersonal 
Verbs. 

Would, meaning wish, is always in the first person; as, " Would 
he were here," means, " I wish he were here." 

Methinks (l think) and methought (I thought) are used, in the 
first person, as unipersonal verbs. 

Verbs in the imperative mode are always in the second person, but 
in parsing they need not be called unipersonal. 

Verbs which have the pronoun it (used indefinitely) for their 
subject, are unipersonal verbs in the third person ; as, "It behooves J 9 
— " It thunders." 

Meseems (it seems to me) and meseemed (it seemed to me) are uni- 
personal verbs in the third person. 

PAETIOIPLES. 
A Participle is a form of the verb which has the nature, 
partly of the verb, and partly of the adjective ; as, 
u Wealth acquired dishonestly affords no happiness." 

The participle has the nature of the verb, because it expresses 
(the ugh it d ;es not assert) action, being, or state, and also implies 



PARTICIPLES. 59 

time. It has the nature of the adjective, because, like jm adjective, 
it describes or limits a noun or a pronoun. 

There are three participles ; the Imperfect, the Perfect, 

and the Preperfect. 

The participles are so named from the condition (as regards com- 
pletion) of the action, the being, or the state, implied by the participle 
at the time denoted by the principal verb with which it is connected. 

The Imperfect Participle is one which represents an ac- 
tion, a being, or a state, as continuing, or as unfinished; as, 
u The waves were heard breaking on the beach." 

The imperfect participle in the active voice ends with ing ; as, 
learning, seeing, reading. In this voice it is a single word. 

The imperfect participle in the passive voice has being for its 
sign ; as, being seen, being read. In this voice it is always complex 
in form. 

The Perfect Participle is one which represents an action, 
a being, or a state, as complete or finished; as, "He came, 
accompanied by his friends." — " The army retired, defeated 
on all sides." 

The perfect participle in each voice is a single word. 

The perfect participle is seldom used in the active voice except to 
form the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future perfect tense ; 
as, "I have taught." — "I had taught." — "I shall have taught." 

In the passive voice it is used in forming all the tenses of the 
various modes ; — it may also be used alone ; as, "I am loved;" to be 
loved; u Washington died, loved by all." 

The Preperfect Participle is one which represents an 
action, a being, or a state, as complete or finished before some 
other action, being, or state; as, "Having reached the 
summit, they sat down to rest." 

The preperfect participle is always complex in form, and in the 
active voice is made by placing having, and in the passive voice, 
by placing having been, before the perfect participle; as, having 
loved; having been taught. 

REMARKS. 

The imperfect and the preperfect participle are easily distinguished 
by theix forms. 



60 PARTICIPLES. 

The perfect participle of regular, and of most irregular verbs, has 
the same form as the past tense ; but the action, the being, or the 
state expressed by this participle is not asserted of a subject, as that 
of a finite verb is. 

The time implied by the participle is present, past, or future, ac- 
cording to the tense of the principal verb with which it is used ; as, 
" He lives, respected {present) by all who know him." — " He lived, 
esteemed (past) by his friends." — " He will live, honored (future) 
by his fellow-men." 

When a participle is used merely to describe a noun or a pro- 
noun, it is called a Participial Adjective; as, " Cultivated fields sur- 
rounded the mansion." — "A running stream is a pleasant sight." 

When a participle receives a prefix not found in the verb from 
which it is formed, it becomes an adjective simply, and is to be parsed 
as such ; as, beloved, unloved, unhonored. 

When a participle ending with ing is used simply as the name of 
an action, a being, or a state, it is called a Participial Noun; as, 
" His reading is very indistinct." 

Exercis e. — Name the participles in the following sentences, and tell to 
which class each belongs ; also, the participles used as adjectives, and those 
used as nouns : — 

Still achieving, still pursuing, learn to labor and to wait. The laborer, 
exhausted by toil, sank into a deep sleep. The icicles hanging from the 
branches of the trees glistened in the sunlight. The French, having entered 
Moscow, considered their sufferings at an end. The complaining brooks make 
the meadows green. The street, filled with its ever-shifting train, has been 
compared to life. "'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber 
door." The sentence of death pronounced upon the prisoner was received 
without emotion. The confused throng swayed to and fro. The army, re- 
turning with victorious eagles, entered the city in triumph. 

Being driven by the gale, the vessel was dashed against the rocky shore. 
The Persians, having been defeated, returned to their own country. His 
mind had been well disciplined by reading and observation. The stream 
flows on its winding course through a richly cultivated valley. I see thee 
weeping, trembling, captive led. The defences of the city being battered 
down, the enemy entered. Riches, justly obtained and rationally used, are 
a great blessing. The services having been concluded, preparations were 
made to deposit the coffin in the earth. How fast the flitting figures pass 1 
Cheating is a sure attendart upon gambling. 



CLASSES OF VERBS ACCORDING TO FORMATION. 61 

CLASSES OF VEKBS ACCORDING TO FORMATION. 
Verbs are divided, according to their formation, into 
two classes ; Regular and Irregular. 

A Regular Verb is one whose past tense and perfect par- 
ticiple are formed by suffixing ed to its present tense; as, 
• s.ylove; Past, loved; Perf. Part., loved. 
An Irregular Verb is one whose past tense or perfect par- 
ticiple, or both, are not formed by suffixing ed to its pre- 
sent tense; as, Pres. take; Past, took; Perf. Part, taken. 

The present tense, the past tense, and the perfect participle, are 
called the Principal Parts of a verb. 

They are called the Principal Parts, because, besides being them- 
selv or parts of the verb, they aid in the formation of all 

the other tenses or parts of the verb. 

The present form of a verb is used in the present and in the future 
e of the indicative ; in the present and in the past of the poten- 
tial ; in the present of the subjunctive, in the present of the impera- 
and in the present of the infinitive. 

The past f<'rm of a verb is used in the past tense of the indicative, 
and in the past of the subjunctive. 

The present form and the past are never used in the passive voice. 

The perfi ct participle is used after " have" and " had" in the active 
voice, and is used in forming all the tenses of the different modes in 
the passive voice. 



THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. 



: 



A TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF PRIMITIVE 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 



e principal parts of pi verbs chiefly are given, because, 

rally, the past tense and the perfect participle of derivative 
mpound verba are formed as those of their primitives are. 

partial/)/ infected when tbeir principal parts are named. 



PmtenL 

le, 


But 




Perfect Part. 

abode. 


Am, 






been. 




ar 




arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, 

e 


awaked, 


awaked. 



62 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF PRIMITIVE IRREG. VERBS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Bear (to bring forth), 


bore, bare ; 


born. 


Bear (to carry), 


bore, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beat, beaten. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bended, bent, 


bended, bent. 


Bereave, 


bereaved, bereft, 


bereaved, bereft. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bestride, 


bestrid, bestrode, 


bestrid, bestridden 


Betide, 


betid, betided, 


betid. 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bid, bidden. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built,* builded, 


built, builded. 


Burn, 


burned, burnt, 


burned, burnt. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, catched, 


caught, catched, 


Chide, 


chid, 


chid, chidden. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen, chose. 


Cleave (to split), 


cleft, clove, 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, crowed, 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare (to venture), 


dared, durst, 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealed, dealt, 


dealed, dealt. 


Dig, 


dug, digged, 


dug, digged. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamed, dreamt, 


dreamed, dreamt, 
drunk. 


Drink, 


drank, 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF PRIMITIVE IRREG. VERBS. 63 



Present. 


Put 




Perfect Part, 


Dwell, 


dwelled 


, dwelt, 


dwelled, dwelt. 


Eat, 


eat, ate, 




cat, eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 




fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 




fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 




felt. 


fight. 


fought, 




fought. 


Find, 


found, 




found. 


Flee, 


fled, 




fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 




flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 




flown. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 




forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 




frozen. 


Get, 


got, 




got, gotten. 


Gild, 


gilded, j 


jilt, 


gilded, gilt. 


Gird, 


girded, girt, 


girded, girt. 


Give, 


gave, 




given. 


Go, 


went, 




gone. 


Grave, 


graved, 




graven, graved. 


Grind, 


ground, 




ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 




grown. 


Hang, 


hanged, 


hung, 


hanged, hung. 


Have, 


had, 




had. 


Hear, 


heard, 




heard. 


Heave, 


heaved, 


hove, 


heaved. 


Hew, 


hewed, 




hewed, hewn. 


Hide, 


hid, 




hid, hidden. 


Hit, 


hit, 




hit. 


Hold, 


held, 




held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 




hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 




kept. 


Kneel, 


kneeled, 


knelt, 


kneeled, knelt. 


Knit, 


knit, knitted, 


knit, knitted. 


Know, 


knew, 




known. 




laded, 




laded, laden. 




laid, 




laid. 


1 


led, 




led. 


Leave, 


left, 




left. 


Lend, 


lent, 




lent. 


Let, 


let, 




let. 


Lie (to recline), 


lay, 




lain. 


Light, 


lighted, 


lit, 


lighted, lit. 



64 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF PRIMITIVE IRREG. VERBS. 



Lose, 


Past. 

lost, 


Perfect Part. 
lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowed, mown. 


Pay, 

Pen (to coop), 

Put, 

Quit, 

Rap (to seize), 

Read, 


paid, 

penned, pent, 

put, 

quit, quitted, 

rapped, rapt, 

read, 


paid. 

penned, pent. 

put. 

quit, quitted. 

rapped, rapt. 

read. 


Rid, 


rid, ridded, 


rid, ridded. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


Ring, 
Rise, 


rang, rung, 

rose, 


rung, 
risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


rived, riven. 


Run, 


ran, run, 


run. 


Say, 
Saw, 


said, 
sawed, 


said. 

sawed, sawn. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Seethe, 


seethed 


seethed, sodden. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 
Shave, 


shaped, 
shaved, 


shaped, shapen. 
shaved, shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


sheared, shorn. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, shined, 


shone, shined. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown, sir wed. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 

Sink, 


sung, sang, 
sunk, sank, 


sung, 
sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF PRIMITIVE IRREG. VERBS. 65 



Present. 


But 


Barjed Bui, 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slid, slidden. 


Sliii£, 


slum:. 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, slitted, 


slit, slitted. 


Smell, 


smelled, smelt, 


smelled, smelt. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten, smit. 


! 


sowed, 


sowed, sown. 


Speak, 


spoke, spake, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, speeded, 


sped, speeded. 


Spell, 


spelled, spelt, 


spelled, spelt. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilled, spilt, 


spilled, spilt. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit. 


Split, 


split, splitted, 


split, splitted. 


Spoil, 


spoiled, spoilt, 


spoiled, spoilt. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Stave, 


staved, stove, 


staved, stove. 


Stay, 


stayed, staid, 


stayed, staid. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Strew, 


strewed, 


strewed, strewn. 


Stride, 


strid, strode, 


strid, stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck, stricken. 


Stril 


strung, 


strung. 


! 


strove, 


striven. 


St row, 


st mwed, 


strowed, strown. 


;ir, 


swore, 


sworn. 


it, 


sweat, sweated, 


sweat, sweated. 




swept, 


swept. 




Lied, 


swelled, swollen. 


Swim, 


Bwam, >wum, 


swum. 


:i 3» 


;n o» 


swung. 




k. 


taken. 


b, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 



6* 



66 



DEFECTIVE "VERBS. 



Present. 


Past. 




Perfect Part. 


Think, 


thought, 




thought. 


Thrive, 


thrived, 




thrived, thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 




thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 




thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 




trod, trodden. 


Wax, 


waxed, 




waxed, waxen. 


Wear, 


wore, 




worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 




woven, wove. 


Weep, 


wept, 




wept. 


Wet, 


wet, wetted, 


wet, wetted. 


Win, 


won, 




won. 


Wind, 


wound, 




wound. 


Work, 


worked, 


wrought, 


worked, wrought, 


Wring, 


wrung, 




wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 




written. 



DEFECTIVE VEKBS. 

A Defective Verb is one which has no participles, and is 
not used in all the modes and tenses. 
Defective verbs are irregular. 



Present. 
Beware, 
Can, 
Hark, 

May, 
Must, 
Ought, 



LIST OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Past. 



could. 



might, 
ought. 





Present. 


Past. 




Quoth, 


quoth. 




Shall, 


should. 




Will, 


would. 




Wis, 


wist. 




Wit, 


wot. 


REM. 


iRKS. 





Beware is used mostly in the imperative mode, but it may be used 
in other modes. 

Hark is now used only in the imperative. 

Ought, which is nearly equivalent to should (the past tense of 
shall), is employed in connection with the infinitive mode of other 
verbs; as, "I ought t go." — "He ought to learn." — "She ought 
to have g?ne." 

Ought 5a in the present tense when followed by the present tense 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 67 

»f the infinitive, and in the past tense when fallowed by the present 
>erfeet tense of the infinitive. 

Quoth is now seldom used, except in humor or satire. 

Wis [know) md wist [knew) are obsolete. 

Wit is employed only in the infinitive (to wit) ; when thus used it 
s equivalent to namely or tliat is to say, and is used in legal Ian- 
;aage to call attention to particulars; its past tense wot is not now 

Can, may, shall, and will, and their past tenses, and must, are used 
nly in forming tenses of other verbs. 

The onipersonal verbs would (meaning wish), meseems, and me- 
hinks, are also defective. 

AUXILIARY VEKBS. 

An Auxiliary Verb is one which helps to form the 
podea and the tenses of other verbs. 

The only tenses which may not be formed by means of auxiliaries 
ire the present and the past of the indicative and the subjunctive, 
md the present of the imperative and the infinitive, in the active 
roice : as, "I loved." — " Love thou;" — to love; and even these, except 
he present infinitive, have complex forms ; .as, " If I did love." 

The auxiliary verbs are be, do, have, will, can, may, 
ihall; mast, and need. 

REMARKS. 

Be, do, have, need, and will, are also complete or principal verbs; 
are auxiliary, when used with a participle or with any other 
prt -«fa principal verb. 

Can. may. must, and shall, are auxiliary verbs only. 
Be is used as an auxiliary throughout all its parts in aiding to 
farm the ] ice and the progressive form of other verbs. 

Do is used as an auxiliary only in its present and in its past tense. 
Have is used as an auxiliary in its present and its past tense, and 
n its imperfect participle. 

1 as an auxiliary only in its present tense, chiofly in 

sentences expressing requirement or obligation; as, " The mes- 

eed not return." It makes one of the variations of the 

tial mode. 

Can, may, shall and will, have each two tenses only, the present 

aid the past; and must and need but one, the present. 

f 



68 CONJUGATION, ETC. 



FORMS OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Present. Am, Do, Have, Shall, Will, May, Can, Must. Need. 

Past was, did, had, should, would, might, could. — — 

Part being, — having, — — — — — — 

been. — had. 

CONJUGATION. 
The Inflection of a verb is called Conjugation. 
The Conjugation of a verb is the regular arrangement 
of its several voices, modes, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIAEIES. 

CAN. 

Present : — Sign of the Potential Present 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I can, 1. We can, 

2. Thou canst, 2. You can, 

3. He can ; 3. They can. 

Past : — Sign of the Potential Past 

1. I could, 1. We could, 

2. Thou couldst, 2. You could, 

3. He could ; 3. They could. 

MAY. 

Present: — Sign of the Potential Present 

1. I may, 1. We may, 

2. Thou mayst, 2. You may, 

3. He may ; 3. They may. 

Past: — Sign of the Potential Past 

1. I might, 1. We might, 

2. Thou mightst, 2. You might, 

3. He might ; 3. They might. 



CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES. 69 

SHALL. 

Present: — Sign of Future Tenses. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall, 1. We shall, 

2. Thou shalt 2. You shall, 

3. He shall j " 3. They shall. 

Past : — Sign of the Potential Past. 

1. I should, 1. We should, 

2. Thou shouldst, 2. You should, 

[ 3. He should ; 3. They should. 

MUST. 
Present : — Sign of the Potential Present. 

1. I must, 1. We must, 

2. Thou must, 2. You must, 

3. He must ; 3. They must. 

WILL. 
Present : — Sign of Future Tenses. 

1. I will, 1. We will, 

2. thou wilt, 2. You will, 

3. He will ; 3. They will. 

Past: — Sign of the Potential Past. 

1. I would, 1. We would, 

2. Thou wouldst, 2. You would, 

3. He would ; 3. They would. 

When used a^ a principal verb: — Principal Parts. — Present, 
HTill; Past, Willed; Perfect Participle, Willed. Participles. — Im- 
perfect, Willing ; Perfect, Willed ; Preperfect, Having willed. 

NEED. 

Present: — Sign of the Potential Present. 

1. I need, 1. We need, 

2. Thou needat, . 2. You n< 

3. lie need ; 3. They Deed. 
Vheii £ a principal verb: — Principal Parts. — Pi 

led; Perfect Participle, Needed. Participles. — 
Imperfect, Needing; Perfect, Needed; Preperfect, Having needed. 



70 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO BE.* 



DO. 
Present : — Sign of the Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I do, 1. We do, 

2. Thou dost, 2. You do, 

3. He does ; 3. They do. 

Past: — Sign of the Past Tense. 

1. I did, 1. We did, 

2. Thou didst, 2. You did, 

3. He did ; 3. They did. 

When used as a principal verb: — Principal Parts. — Present^ 
Do ; Past f Did ; Perfect Participle, Done. Participles. — Imperfect 
Doing ; Perfect, Done ; Preperfect, Having done. 

HAVE. 

Present : — Sign of the Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have, 1. We have, 

2. Thou hast, 2. You have, 

3. He has ; 3. They have. 

Past : — Sign of the Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had, 1. We had, 

2. Thou hadst, 2. You had,. 

3. He had ; 3. They had. 

When used as a principal verb : — Principal Parts. — Present* 
Have ; Past, Had ; Perfect Participle, Had. Participles.— Imper- 
fect, Having ; Perfect, Had ; Preperfect, Having had. 

CONJUGATION OF THE INTKANSH tVE YEEB 

"TO BE." 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Present. — Am. Past. — Was. Perfect Participle. — Been. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB " TO BE." 



71 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 



dar. 

1. I am, 

2. Thou art, 

3. lie is; 



1. I was, 

2. Thou wast, 

3. He was ; 



Past Tense. 



Plural. 

1. We are, 

2. You are, 

3. They are. 



1. We were, 

2. You were, 

3. They were. 



Future Tense; — implying simply future time. 

1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 

2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 

3. He will be ; 3. They will be. 

Future Tense; — implying promise, command, or threat 

1. I will be, 1. We will be, 

2. Thou shalt be, 2. You shall be, 

3. He shall be ; 3. They shall be. 

When questions are asked, these forms reverse their meaning; 
that is, the second expresses future time, and the first has reference 
to determination or command. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

- 3. He has been ; 3. They have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been, 3. They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou wilt or shalt have been, 2. You will or shall have been, 

3. He will or shall have been; 3. They will or shall have been. 



72 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB " TO BE." 

The auxiliaries shall and will have nearly the same meaning in 
the future perfect as in the future tense. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

In this mode the auxiliaries of the present tense are may, can, 
must y and need; 

— Of the past tense, might, could, would, and should; 

— Of the present perfect tense, may have, can have, must have, 
and need have ; 

— Of the past perfect tense, might have, could have, would have, and 
should have. Of these only one in each tense will here be given. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be, 1. We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be ; 3. They may be. 

Past Tense. 
1. I might be, 1. We might be, 

' 2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be; 3. They might be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 

Exercise. — Conjugate the verb "to be" in every tense of this mode, 
using all the auxiliaries. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Verbs in the indicative and the potential mode, as well a? 
those in the subjunctive, are preceded by the conjunctions if 
though, etc.; therefore some grammarians teach that there are three 
forms of the subjunctive mode, viz.: the Subjunctive Proper, the; 
Subjunctive Indicative, and the Subjunctive Potential. But it 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB " TO BE. 



73 



•equires a distinct form of the verb to constitute a distinct male, 
md this distinct form is found in the subjunctive mode in the 
present and the past tense only : strictly, therefore, the Subjunctive 
Proper is the only subjunctive mode. 

When the indicative and the potential mode are preceded by the 
injunctions named, they may be parsed as the indicative and the 
ootential mode, used suljundlctlf/. 



Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I be, 

2. If thou be, 

3. If he be; 



Plural 

1. If we be, 

2. If you be, 

3. If they be. 



Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou were, 2. If you were, 

3. If he were ; 3. If they were. 



The present tense of the subjunctive refers to future time; as, 
44 If it be necessary, I icill go to-morrow" ; that is, " If it shall be 
necessary, etc." 

The past tense refers to present time; as, "If it were done, all 
anxiety would be at an end" ; that is, " If it were done now, etc." 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



Present Tense, 

Singular. 

Be, or be thou, 

Do be, or do thou be; 



2. 



Plural. 

Be, or be you, 

Do be, or do you be. 



The form of any verb having the auxiliaries do or did placed before 
ailed the Emphatic Form, because it denotes emphasis. 

In the active voice of any verb, the emphatic form can be used 
only in the present tense and the past of the indicative, in the 
subjunctive, and in the imperative. 

In the passive voice, the emphatic form is used only in the im- 
perative. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. — To be. Present Perfect Tense. — To have been. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. — Being. Perfect. — Been. Preperfect. — Having been 

7 



74 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB " TO BE." 



REMARKS ON THE VERB " TO BE." 

Be was formerly used in the indicative present for am, th:is:— / 
be, thou beest, he be; We be, ye be, they be. This form is now con- 
sidered contrary to good usage. 

Wert is sometimes used for were, in the second person singular of 
the past subjunctive, and improperly for wast in the past indicative. 

Were sometimes means would be; it should be parsed according to 
its form, and not according to its meaning, as in the subjunctive 
mode; as, "It were vain to contend against such odds." 

The forms had be, and had been, denoting comparison or pre 
ference, are often used for would be, and would have been; as, "I 
had rather be a dog, than such a Roman."—" It had been better for 
him if he had not done it." 

Such expressions should be avoided, and the past, or the past per- 
fect tense of the potential, should be used. 

The conjunctions if, though, etc., are sometimes omitted, and the 
nominative is placed after the verb, or between the verb and the 
auxiliary; as, Were I, for, if I were ; had he gone, for, if he had 
gone ; should he stay, for, if he should stay. 

Exercise I. — Mention the mode, the tense, the number, and the person, 
of each part of the verb "to be" in the following expressions, and conjugate 
the mode and the tense of each part : — 

Thou art. He has been. We shall be. I may be. If I were. Be. To 
be. They had been. Thou wilt have been. You could be. They 
might have been. If he be. You were He may have been. Be you. 
He need be. She should be. It was. To have been. She would have 
been. 

Exercise II.— Give, in regular order, all the first persons singular of 
the verb "to be" in the indicative mode; — all the first persons plural; — 
all the second persons singular; — all the second persons plural; — all the third 
persons singular;— and all the third persons plural. 

Give also all the first persons plural in the potential mode; — all the third 
persons plural ; — all the second persons singular, and second persons plural, 
in the subjunctive mode. 

The preceding exercise is one of Synopsis. 

A Synopsis is a collection of parts so arranged as to give a 
general view of the whole. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE" — ETC 75 

CONJUGATION OP THE VEEB 

"TO LOVE." 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Present. — Love. Past. — Loved. Per/. Participle. — Loved. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I love, 1. We love, 

2. Thou lovest, 2. You love, 

3. He loves ; 3. They love. 

Present Tense: — Emphatic Form. 

1. I do love, 1. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 

3. He does love ; 3. They do love. 

Past Tense. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved ; 3. They loved. 

Past Tense: — Emphatic Foi*m. 

1. I did love, 1. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 

3. He did love ; 3. They did love. 

Futwn Tense: — implying simply future time. 

1. I shrill love, 1. We shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 

3. He will love ; 3. They will love. 



76 CONJUGATION OF THE VEKB "TO LOV-ri"— ETC. 

Future Tense: — implying promise, command, or threat 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I will love, 1. We will love, 

2. Thou shalt love, 2. You shall love, 

3. He shall love ; 3. They shall love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved; 3. They had loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved, 

2. Thou wilt or shalt have loved, 2. You will or shall have loved, 
S, He will or shall have loved; 3. They will or shall have loved 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love ; 3. They may love. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love ; 3. They might love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE" — ETC. 77 
Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2 Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have lovoi. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love ; 3. If they love. 

Present Tense : — Emphatic Form. 

1. If I do love, 1. If we do love, 

2. If thou do love, 2. If you do love, 

3. If he do love ; 3. If they do love. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved ; 3. If they loved. 

Past Tense : — Emphatic Form. 

1. If I did love, 1. If we did love, 

2. If thou did love, 2. If you did love, 

3. If he did love ; 3. If they did love. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

2. Love, love thou, or 2. Love, love you, or 

do thou luvc ; do you love. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. — To love. Present Perfect.— To have loved. 



78 PASSIVE VOICE. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect. — Loving. Perfect. — Loved. Preperfect. — Having loved 

REMARK. 

The third person singular formerly ended in eth. This termination, 
and hath for has, and doth for does, are used only in solemn style. 

Exercise I. — Conjugate the verbs to learn, to take, to rule, and to teach, 
in the active voice, in the same manner as the verb "to love." 

Exercise 1 1. — Give orally, or write out, a synopsis of the verb to love, 
in the first person singular, in all the modes of the active voice; thus: 1 
love, or I do love; I loved, or I did lone; I shall love, etc. 

Give orally, or write out, a synopsis of the same verb in the second person 
singular, in all the modes of the active voice; — in the second person plural j 
— in the third person plural; — of the verb to take in the third person sin- 
gular, in all the modes of the active voice ; — in the first person plural. 

Exercise II I. — Mention the principal parts, the mode, the tense, the 
number, and the person, of the verbs in the following expressions: — 

Thou writest. He taught. Speak you. He may learn. If I love. They 
do learn. He will take. I had walked. Thou mightst rule. You may 
have listened. I understood. He has explained. Speak. To have heard. 
If thou ruled. We might have obeyed. They would write. "We must 
study. You should have listened. It has amused. She will have taken. 
He need not go. They had come. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
_f he Passive "Voice of a verb is formed by combining 
with its perfect participle the variations of the auxiliary 
verb to be. 

There are eleven variations of the verb "to be/' namely; —am, 
art, is, are, was, wast, were, (wert), be, been, and being. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved ; 3. They are loved. 



rASSivE voice. 79 

Past Tense. 

Singular. PkmU. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved ; 3. They were loved. 

Future Tense: — implying simply future time 

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 

2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 

3. He will be loved ; 3. They will be loved. 

future Tense: — implying promise, command, or threat 

1. I will be loved, 1. We will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt be loved, 2. You shall be loved, 

3. He shall be loved ; 3. They shall be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

L I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved; 3. They have been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved ; 3. They had been loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

I. I <hall or will have been loved, 1. We shall or will have been loved, 

I. Thou wilt or shalt have been 2. You will or shall have been 

loved, ' loved, 

I. He will or shall have been 3. They will or shall have been 

loved ; loved. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present T< 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be lived, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be loved. 



80 PASSIVE VOICE. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be loved, 1. "We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved. 

Present Perfect 

1. I may have been loved, 1. "We may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved ; 3. They may have been loved. 

Past Perfect 

1. I might have been loved, 1. "We might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; 3. They might have been loved 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 

3. If he be loved; 3. If they be loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If thou were loved, 2. If you were loved, 

3. If he were loved ; 3. If they were loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

2. Be loved, be thou loved, or 2. Be loved, be you loved, or 
do thou be loved. do you be loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. — To be loved. Present Perfect. — To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. — Being loved. Perfect. — Loved. Preperfect — Having 

been loved. 



PROGRESSIVE FORM. 81 

Exercise I. — Conjugate the verbs to advise, to talcc, to rule, and .o fetch, 
in the passive voice, in the sume manner as the verb "to love" is conjugated 
in the passive voice. 

ExxROIS ■ 1 1. — Give a synopsis of the verb " to love" in the first person 
lingular, passive; — of the verb "to advise" in the second person sin- 
gular; — of the verb "to take" in the first person plural; — of the verb "to 
rule" in the second person plural; — of the verb "to teach" in the third 
person plural. 

Exercise II I. — Mention the principal parts, the mode, the tense, tho 
number, aud tho person, of each verb in the following expressions; — 

I have been loved. Thou wast advised. You are taught. It is taken. 
He shall be ruled. They had been loved. He may be asked. It was 
broken. If she be taken. Be thou advised. He might be chosen. You 
could have been taught. Be advised. To be done. It should be found. 
If he were taught. They have been seen. Thou mightst be ruled. To 
have been stolen. He will have been heard. They are told. It should 
have been written. Thou art ruled. You can be advised. Thou needst not 
be troubled. 

THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

The Progressive Form of a verb is that which represents the con- 
tinuance of the action, the being, or the state, asserted by the verb; 
as, " I am writing." — " Thou art standing." — " He teas sleeping." 

The progressive form of a verb is made by combining its imper- 
fect participle with the variations of the auxiliary verb to be. 

Some verbs by reason of their use and meaning do not properly 
have a progressive form; "Ia?n esteeming" for instance, means 
simply, " I esteem." 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LEARN," 
IX THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. — 1. I am learning! 2. Thou art learning, 3. He is 
learning; etc. 

Past Tense. — 1. I was learning, 2. Thou wast learning, 3. He 
was learning ; etc. 



82 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LEARN," ETC. 

Future Tense, — 1. I shall or will be learning, 2. Thou wilt or shalt 
be learning, 3. He will or shall be learning ; etc. 

Present Perfect. — 1. I have been learning, 2. Thou hast been learn- 
ing, 3. He has been learning; etc. 

Past Perfect. — 1. I had been learning, 2. Thou hadst been learn- 
ing, 3. He had been learning ; etc. 

Future Perfect. — 1. I shall or will have been learning, 2. Thou wilt 
or shalt have been learning, 3. He will or shall 
have been learning ; etc. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. — 1. I may be learning, 2. Thou mayst be learn- 
ing, 3. He may be learning ; etc. 

Past Tense. — 1. I might be learning, 2. Thou mightst be learn- 
ing, 3. He might be learning; etc. 

Present Perfect. — 1. I may have been learning, • 2. Thou mayest 
have been learning, 3. He may have been 
learning; etc. 

Past Perfect. — 1. I might have been learning, 2. Thou mightst 
have been learning, 3. He might have been 
learning; etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. — 1. If I be learning, 2. If thou be learning, 3. If 

he be learning ; etc. 
Past Tense. — 1. If I were learning, 2. If thou were learning, 

3. If he were learning ; etc. 



Present Tense.- 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
2. Be thou learning, or do thou be learning ; etc. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. — To be learning. Present Perfect Tense. — To have 
been learning. 



PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect — Being learning. Perfect. — Been learning. Prefer- 

feet. — Having been learning. 



INTERROGATIVE FORM. 83 



REMARKS. 



The progressive form is usually restricted to the act. ve voice, 
although it is sometimes made in the present and the past tense in 
the passive voice by combining with the imperfect passive participle 
of the verb, the variations of the auxiliary verb to be; as, "The 
work is being examined" — " The house was then being constructed." 

The use of the progressive form in the passive voice is of doubtful 
propriety, even though it is sanctioned by many good writers. It 
is preferable to adopt some other mode of expression: thus, instead 
of, " The house was then being constructed" it would be better to say, 
"The house was then in course of construction:" — for, " The work 
is bi ing examined," say, " The work is tinder examination." 

Some transitive verbs in the progressive form of the active voice 
have, in the third person, a passive signification; as, "These stocks 
are selling at a premium." 

Exercise. — Conjugate the verbs to buy, to read, and to icrite, in the pro- 
gressive form, in the same manner as the verb "to learn" is conjugated in the 
progressive form. 

THE INTERROGATIVE FORM. 

The Interrogative Form of a verb is that which is used to ask a 
qucs f Can he learn?" — "Shall he be taught?" 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively by placing the subject im- 
mediately after the verb, between the auxiliary and the verb, or 
after the first auxiliary when two or more auxiliaries are used; as, 
"JHearest thou?" — "May he come?" — "Might he hare been called?" 

The interrogative form is used only in the indicative and in the 
potential mode. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO SEE," 

IN THE INTERROGATIVE FORM. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. — See I, or do I see? Saw I, or did I see? 
Shall or will I see? Have I seen? Had I seen? Shall or will I 
have seen ? 

Potential. — May I see? Might I see? May I have seen? 
liight 1 have seen? 

Progressive Form. — Am I seeing? Was I seeing? Shall or will 



84 NEGATIVE FORM. 

I be seeing ? Have I been seeing ? Had I been seeing J Shall or 
will I have been seeing ? etc. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. — Am I seen ? Was I seen ? Shall or will I be 
seen? Have I been seen? Had I been seen? Shall or will I have 
been seen ? 

Potential. — May I be seen? Might I be seen? May I have 
been seen ? Might I have been seen ? 

THE NEGATIVE FORM, 

The Negative Form of a verb is that which is used to express nega- 
tion or denial; as, " He does not study" 

A verb is conjugated negatively by placing the adverb not imme- 
diately after it, or after the first auxiliary; as, "They care not" — 
" He can not return" — " They will not be governed" 

The negative not, however, precedes the participles and the in- 
finitive; as, Not being loved; not to see. 

The negative form is used in all the modes, and with the partici- 
ples. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO SEE," 
IN THE NEGATIVE FORM. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. — I see not, or I do not see. I saw not, or I 
did not see. I shall or will not see. I have not seen. I had not 
seen. I shall or will not have seen. 

Potential. — I may not see. I might not see. I may not have 
seen. I might not have seen. 

Subjunctive. — If I see not. If I saw not. 

Infinitive. — Not to see. Not to have seen. 

Participles. — Not seeing. Not having seen. 

Progressive Form. — I am not seeing. I was not seeing. I shall 
or will not be seeing. I have not been seeing. I had not been 
seeing. I shall or will not have been seeing, etc. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. — I am not seen. I was not seen. I shall or 
will not be seen. I have not beer seen. I had not been seen. I 
shall or will not have been seen. 



NEGATIVE-INTERROGATIVE FORM, 85 

Potential. — I may not ho seen. I might not be seen. 1 nay not 
have been seen. 1 might not have been seen. 

Subjunctive. — If I be not seen. If I were not seen. 
Infinitive. — Not to be seen. Not to have been seen. 
Participles. — Xot being seen. Not having been seen. 

THE NEGATIVE-INTERROGATIVE FORM, 

The Negative-Interrogative Form of a verb is that which is used to 
ask a question with negation; as, M Shall they not be taught?" 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively by placing the 
subject followed by not, immediately after the verb, or after the first 
auxiliary ; as, " Cares he not?" — " Might he not improve?" 

The negative-interrogative form is used only in the indicative mode 
and in the potential. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO SEE/' 
IN THE NEGATIVE-INTERROGATIVE FORM. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mods. — See I not, or do I not see? Saw I not, or did 
I not see? Shall or will I not see? Have I not seen? Had I not 
seen? Shall or will I not have seen? 

Potential. — May I not see? Might I not see? May I not have 
seen? Might I not have seen? 

Progressive Form. — Am I not seeing? Was I not seeing? ShaU 
or will I not be seeing? Have I not been seeing? Had I not been 
seeing? Shall or will I not have been seeing? etc. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. — Am I not seen? AVas I not seen? Shall or 
will I n-»t l»o seen? Have I not been seen? Had I not been seen? 
Shall or will I not have been seen? 

Potential. — May 1 n<>t be seen? Might I not be seen? May I 
not have been seen? Might I n<>t have been seen? 

Exercise I. — Conjugate the verb to rule in the interrogative form. 

Conjugate the verb to tench in the negative form. 

Conjugato the verb to take in the negative-interrogative form. 

Exercise II. — Mention the principal parts, form, voire, mode, tmse, 
number, an of each of the following verbs, and conjugate each in 

its mode and tenso — 

8 



86 EXERCISES. 

(A verb not in the progressive, the emphatic, the interrogative, the negative, 
or the negative-interrogative form, is said to be in the common form,) 

He was taught. I may be ruling. Thou wast singing. We may not be 
heard. Might I not know? He does learn. She did study. It was said. 
I have been dreaming. If they do come. Do attend. Awake. Do not 
disobey. She should have listened. Has he been punished ? Will you not 
believe ? We might not have been seen. When will it be done ? Would he 
try, he might succeed. The book has been published. Truth is mighty and 
will prevail. Having written a letter, he mailed it. I strove to perform the 
task. Could it have been accomplished ? Boys were reciting lessons. He 
died, esteemed by all who knew him. 

Exercise II I. — Parse the verbs in the following sentences : — 
1. — " Success will attend his efforts, if he continue attentive." 

Models. — Will attend. — Success will attend efforts.— "Will attend" is a 
verb, "A Verb is a word, etc."; — transitive, because it has an object (efforts) ; — 
regular, because its past tense and perfect participle are formed by suffixing 
ed to the present tense (pres. attend, past attended, perf. part, attended); — in 
the activ% <roice, because it shows that the subject does the action expressed 
by the verb; — indicative mode, because it expresses a positive assertion; — | 
future tense, because it denotes future time; — in the singular number, third 
person, because its subject (success) is, with which it agrees. 

Continue. — (If) he continue. — " Continue" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, 
etc.";-^intransitive, etc.; — regular, etc. (pres. continue, past continued, perf. 
part, continued); — it has no voice; — subjunctive mode, etc.; — present tense, 
etc.; — in the singular number, third person, because its subject (he) is, with 
which it agrees. 

2. — " Write your letters, boys, that they may be taken to the post-office. 

Write. — Write (you) letters. — " Write" is a verb, etc. ; — transitive, etc. ;- 

irregular, etc. (write, wrote, written) ; — active voice, etc. ; — imperative mode, 

etc. ; — present tense, etc. ; — in the plural number, second person, because its 

subject (you, understood) is, with which it agrees. 

May be taken. — They maybe taken. — "May be taken" is a verb, etc. ;- 
transitive, etc.; — irregular, etc. (take, took, taken); — passive voice, etc.; — 
potential mode, etc. ; — present tense, etc.; — in the plural number, third person, 
because its subject (they) is, with which it agrees. 

3. — " If he is obliged to go, I can not prevent him." 

Is obliged. — (If) he is obliged. — " Is obliged" is a verb, etc. ; — transitive, 
etc.; — regular, etc. (oblige, obliged, obliged); — passive voice, etc.; — indicative 
mode (used subjunctively, because it expresses uncertainty or contingency); 



EXERCISES. 87 

— present tense, etc. :— in the singular number, third person, because its sub- 
ject (he) is, with which it agrees. 

To go. — Is obliged to go. — " To go" is a verb, etc.; — intransitive, etc. — 

ular, etc. [go, went, gone); — it has no voice; — infinitive mode, etc.; — 

tc, ; — it is not limited by number or person, becauso it has no 

■abject; — it depends upon ihe finite verb i% obliged) which it completes in 

meaning. 

4. — " Did all men show charity, how much misery would be prevented. " 
I show. — Men did show charity. — u Did show'* is a verb, etc.; — transitive, 
etc. ; — irregular, etc. (show, showed, shown) ; — active voice, etc. ; — subjunctive 
mode. etc. : — past tense, etc. ; — emphatic form, etc.; — in the plural number, 
third person, because its subject (men) is, with which it agrees. 

Participle s. — Parse the participles, etc., in the following sentences : — 
1. — " The prisoner, convicted of murder, was sentenced to be hanged." 

M i> f. i. 8. — Convicted. — (Prisoner) convicted. — " Convicted" is the perfect, 
participle of the passive voice of the transitive regular verb "to convict" 
erf. being convicted, perf. convicted, preperf. having been convicted); — it 
describes the noun prisoner. 

2. — " The falling of the burning timbers caused the death of a fireman." 
! ing. — Falling caused. — "Falling" is the imperfect participle of the 
verb "to fall" (im^erf, falling, -pert, fallen, preperf. having fallen) ; — it is used 
as a noun in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender; — 
in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb caused. 

Burning. — Burning timbers. — "Burning" is the imperfect participle of tho 

- verb^'to burn" (imperf. burning, perf. burned, preperf. having burned); — it is 

mted a* an adjective; — it can not be compared, and it describes the noun 

Parse the verba, tho participles, the participial adjectives, and the participial 

1 nouns in the following sentences : — 

( Bees make honey. Revenge dwells in little minds. The rich soil yielded 
fruit and flowers in abundance. Virtue will procure esteem. The bird has 
built her ne-t in the old tree. The sultry heat of Bummer had passed away. 
An angry man '.pens his mouth and shuts his eves. The hunter returned 
laden with the spoils of the chase. Home was founded in 703 before 
Christ. The cottages of the peasants were consigned to the flames. He 
who is ignorant of happiness may possess wealth, but he cannot truly 
enjoy it. 

le expectations, for you will be disappointed. 
If th-ui pretended to know the truth, then thy ignorance were the greater 
•rime. Unless we rule ourtelves, we will be ruled by others. Ifiafl mav 



88 ADVERBS. 

sow the seed, but he cannot cause it to grow. Can any business be eon- 
ducted successfully, if punctuality be habitually disregarded? If James 
study diligently, he will improve. The loss might have been prevented, 
if ordinary care had been taken. Though thou obeyed the law in all its 
requirements, thou wouldst not merit praise. If a community existed in 
which each regarded the rights of others, bolts and bars were needless. 

The sun sets, and the mountains are shaded. The shadows of evening are 
thickening, and the gray mists are rising in the valley. The assassin, having 
given the fatal blow, fled without waiting to watch the result. The forests 
of mighty trees under which the lands are groaning, must be cleared 
away before we can sow the seed of future harvests. But whatever be our 
fate, be assured that this declaration will stand. Bead good books, seek 
good companions, attend to good counsels, and imitate good examples. 
If we cannot command our thoughts, we must not hope to control our 
actions. When Christianity shall have prevailed in its purity over all the 
earth, then may we hope that wars and rumors of wars will cease. 

Exercise IV. — Parse also the articles, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives 
in the preceding sentences. 



ADVERBS. 



An Adverb is a word used to qualify a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb; as, "They were not dili- 
gent, and advanced very slowly in their studies." 

An adverb may qualify a preposition; as, " The vessel was struck 
immediately above the water-line." 

An adverb may also qualify several words taken together; i 
" He held out nearly to the end, and then yielded." — " The arrow 
was aimed directly at the heart of the captive." 

REMARKS. 

An adverb is usually an abridged expression denoting by one 
word an equivalent for two or more words ; slowly, for instance, is 
equivalent to in a slow manner. 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 89 

Such expressions as at length, at once, of course, in vein, in short, 

etc., each of which usually consists of a preposition and a noun or 

an adjective following, have beeo termed adverbial phrases, and parsed 

ly as adverbs; hut whenever the words in Buch expressions can 

be parsed separately, it is better to parse them so. 

The expressions by and by, upside down, now and then, etc., are 
Complex Adverbs when the words composing them cannot be parsed 
separately. 

Adverbs formed by uniting two or more words, with or without 
the hyphen, are Compound Adverbs; as, elsewhere, somehow, topsy- 
turvy, helter-skelter, etc. 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs may be divided into five general classes; Adverbs of 
Manner, of Time, of Place, of Degree, and of Interrogation. 

I. Adverbs of Manner generally answer to the question, How? 
Most of them are formed from adjectives or participles by suffixing 
ly ; and a few by suffixing how or wise. 

Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows : — 
1. — Of quality; as, fain, ill, lief so, thus, well, badly, easily, fool- 
ishly, gladly, sweetly, anyhow, somehow, likewise, otherwise, etc. 
2. — Of affirmation; as, amen, ay, certainly, doubtless, forsooth, 

I, surely, truly, verily, yea, yes, etc. 
3. — Of negation; as, nay, no, not, nowise, etc. 
4. — Of uncertainty ; as, haply, may-be, mayhap, perhaps, per- 
I chance, peradi'enture, possibly, probably, etc. 

II. Adverbs of Time generally answer to the question, When? 

t How often f or How soon? 
The principal adverbs of time are already, always, daily, ever, 
iily, immediately, lately, now, never, often, seldom, since, 
. till, until, weekly, yesterday, yet, etc.; also, once, twice, and 
ice. 

III. Adverbs of Place generally answer to the question, Where? 

n's t Whence? or Whither? 
The principal adverbs of place are anywhere, downward, else- 
here, hither, nowhere, off, out, somewhere, /heme, there, 

', etc. ; also, first, secondly, thirdly, 
etc., and such words as singly, doubly, tn'j/ly, etc. 

s- 



00 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

IV. Adverbs of Degree generally answer to the question. How 
much i or How little? An adverb of degree usually qualifies an 

or another adverb. 

e principal adverbs of degree are almost, altogether, as, enough, 

pen, much, more, most, little, less, least, only, quite, scarcely, 

/, wholly, etc. 

V. Adverbs of Interrogation are used in asking questions. 
The principal adverbs of interrogation are how, when, whence, 

'"/•c, whither, ivhy, etc. 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

Conjunctive Adverbs are those which have the nature partly of the 
conjunction, and partly of the adverb. They connect parts of sen- 
tences (clauses), and qualify words in each clause ; as, " He claimed 
the right to defend himself when he was attacked." 

Here when connects the two parts, and qualifies to defend and was 
attacked* 

The principal conjunctive adverbs are after, as, before, how, 
since, therefore, till, until, when, where, wherefore, while, and why. 

COMPAKISON 01 ADVEBBS. 

The Inflection of adverbs, like that of adjectives, is called Com- 
parison. 

A few adverbs are compared like adjectives by suffix- 
ing to the positive er to form the comparative, and est to 
form the superlative; as, pos. soon, comp. sooner, sup. 
est. 
Most adverbs which end with the syllable ly admit the 
form of comparison made by placing before the positive 
more or less to form the comparative, and most or least to 
form the superlative; as, pos. easily, comp. more easily, 
. mod easily; pos. frequently, comp. less frequently, sup. 
frequently* 

iples the adverbs more and most, less and least, only 
these adverbs, therefore, should be parsed as qualify- 
principal adverbs easily and frequently, which are compared, 
but arc- not inflected. 



EXEB&SES. }] 

The following adverbs are compared irr ~ 

itoirVi*. C -'ire. Affffttffcl 

Badly, wor 

Far, farther, 

111, WOI 

Little, Less, 

Much, more, n, 

Well, better, 

REMARKS. 

Many words are used Bometimea as n-l nee as 

:tives; as, "When employment 
becomes a burden;" here, no is an adverb, and qualifies th< 
longer. "When they lifted up their eyes, thi 
- an adjective, and limits the noun man. 

The principal words which are either adverbs or :i 1 
ing to their use, are better, best, first, late, little, 
more, most, near, no, still, well, etc. Thea baa 

Ihey qualify verbs, adjectives, or other a 
when they describe or limit nouns or prom 

The adverb there is sometimes used without any definite meaning 
before a verb, or to begin a sentence; as, 
gained by the effort." When a question i< asked, it 
the verb; as, "Breathes thc.ro. a man with BOul - i 

Adverbs are sometimes used independently of otl la; as, 

■ "Well, the worst is past." — "Yes, Christianity over 

all lands." 

Exercise I. — Tell to which elan each r >f thi foil 
give the reason, and compare it. if it can I I ! — 

Now, perhaps, hardly, hither, seldom, thrice recently, doubly, 
often, somewhere, yea, well, upward?, th 
J quite, henceforth, indeed, never, already, 
undoubtedly, singly, no, farther, verily. 

Kxiroisi EI. — Parse thi Uowtogitni 

"They are here, but th< 

Models.— Ht e.— Are here.—" B 
wor i, e tc." :— of place, it '—it cannot be oom- 

pared; — it qualifies the \ 

Soon.— Will leave soon.— 3 on" is an adverb, "An Adverb is a word, • 



99 PREPOSITIONS. 

fi;m\ it insweM to the question, When? — it can be compared (j . s. soon 

it) i — in the positive degree; — it qualifies the verb 

trill i- 

mptly when necessity requires it." 

when requires (when). — " When" is a conjunctive adverb, "A 

motive Adverb is one which connects the words which it qualifies"; — it 

e:mn>t be •■in pared; — it connects and qualifies the verbs act and requires. 

Pane the adverbs in the following sentences: — 

The deep river flowed noiselessly. How brightly shines the morning 

Min. Ho rose early and retired late. His friend went to New York and 

thence sailed to London. Washington was unanimously elected. Still one 

was wanting. The still night was bitterly cold. Come when you shall 

have done you task. Think deliberately and then act promptly. There 

are few who fail when they apply themselves diligently. There wanders 

one whom better days saw better clad. A little mind may often dwell in 

a great body. Well, death must come to us all. Yes, he confessed his fault. 

Vane said no more than this: — " The cause is bad which can not bear 

tin- words of a dying man," and then expired. 

Exercise III. — Parse also the articles, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, 
and verbs, in the preceding sentences. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a 
pronoun to show its relation to some preceding word; 
as, "lie traveled from New York to New Orleans." 

In this sentence, from shows the relation between New York and 

the action expressed by the verb traveled; and to shows the relation 

A ' to Orleans and the action expressed by the verb traveled 

noun or the pronoun, which follows the preposition, is called 

t of the relation denoted by the preposition, and is always 

A preposition is also followed by a participle, a verb in the infini- 
mode, or a part of a sentence (phrase). 



CLASSES OF PBEPOBTTIOm 93 

CLASSES OP PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions are divided into three olas 
Compound, and Complex. 

The Simple Prepositions are nineteen, namely :- 
by, down, for, from, in, of, on, o\ 
through, til!, to, under, up, with. 

Compound Prepositions arc usually formed by | i be to 

some noun, adjective, adverb, or preposition; by unit 
positions; or by uniting a preposition and an ad-. 

In compound words a prefixe 1 is a contra 
meaning of at, in, on, to, etc.; and b( was formi 

The compound prepositions formed by prefh 
aboard, about, above, across, against, along, amid 
amongst, around, athwart. 

The compound prepositions formed by prefix 
behind, below, beneath, be* 

The compound prepositions formed by uniting two pn 
or a preposition and an adverb, are into, throug ds t 

underneath, until, unto, upon, within, without. 

Complez Prepositions are composed of two or n 
of a preposition and some other part b, which 

express one relation; as, "The Bpring 

rocks. " Here, from between is a complez pre] ind ihowi I 

relation between rocks and 

As to, as f<>r. front be 
out of round about, and a few similar ex] 
repositions; but ac 
ad of etc., should not be classed : 
ions the words may 

UABK8. 
Theyerbe 

or a pronoun, and < 

iwhich is compounded of an ad nd ■ participle. 

A few other word* ,n *J *> m ' 



M EXERCISES. 

be parsed as prepositions: such as but, iespite, ere, versus, vic^ 
worthy etc, 

me w«»rds which are generally prepositions become other parts 
of speech when not followed by an object; as, after, before, by r on, 
since, till, up, until, etc., are sometimes adverbs; and but, for, since, 

. therefore, etc., are sometimes conjunctions. 

SB 018 B I. — Parse the prepositions in the following sentences : — 
1. — " The tree is shaken by the wind." 

M o i) ■ l. — By. — Is shaken by wind, — "By" is a preposition, "A Preposition 
la a word, etc."; — it is placed before the noun wind to show its relation to 
the verb is shaken. 
2. — "A sound of falling water issued from within the cavern." 
From within. — Issued from within cavern. — "From within" is a complex 
preposition, "A Complex Preposition is one composed of two or more preposi- 
tions not forming a single word, which together express one relation;" — it is 
placed before the noun cavern to show its relation to the verb issued. 
3. — " Without industry, we can not succeed." 

Without. — Can succeed without industry. — " Without" is a compound pre- 
ion, "A Compound Preposition is one usually formed, etc."; — it is placed 
bofore the noun industry to show its relation to the verb can succeed. 
Parse all the prepositions in the following sentences : — 
Flowers bloom in summer. Wreaths of smoke ascend through the trees. 
Ca>ear paused upon the brink of the Rubicon. Many are courageous from 
a dread of shame. We cannot love our country with too pure an affection. 
er is a little with righteousness than great revenues without right. One 
man. eminent above the others for strength, was chosen to lead them. The 
Influence of human actions reaches beyond the grave. 

R e sat upon a mossy bank beneath an aged pine, among whose branches 

<uth wind made pleasant music, while below us, at a little distance, the 

waters of a tiny brook sang merrily as they danced swiftly down the slope, 

to be lost in the flood of the mighty river. Help from without one's 

il often enfeebling in its effects, but help from within invariably invig- 

[81 IL_Parse also the articles, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, 
verbs, and adverbs, in the preceding sentences. 

1 1 L— Compose sentences containing the different kinds of 
Mil. 



CONJUNCTIONS — CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS, i>u 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



A Conjunction is a word used to connect the word-;, the 
parts of a sentence, or the sentences, between which it is 
placed; as, a He is patient and happy, because he La a 
Christian." 

In this example, and connects the words patient and happy % while 
because connects the parts of the sentence (clauses), 11 
and happy, and, he is a Christian. 

Though relative pronouns connect the nouns or the pronouns 
■which they relate with subsequent parts of sentences, yel they must 
never he parsed as conjunctions; some grammarians, however, call 
them conjunctive pronouns. 

Other parts of speech, such as pronominal adjeel rbs, 

adverbs, and prepositions, when used simply as connectives, >!. 
be parsed as conjunctions. 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
Conjunctions may be divided into two general olae 
Copulative and Disjunctive. 

A Copulative Conjunction is one which denotes an addition, 
quence, a purpose, a reason, or a supposition. 

The copulative conjunctions are eve*, 

for, if seeing, since, so, that, then, and therefore* 

A Disjunctive Conjunction is one which denotes a choic 
son, a separation, or a restriction. 

The disjunctive conjunctions are although, fori 
lest, neither, nevertheless, nor, notwithst 
though, unless, yet, whereas, and 

Certain conjunctions I to tho f. 

in pairs, and are called 
calls for the other and relates to it, 
same words or sentences. 



9 (J EXERCISES. 

rrelative oonjunoidons arc as — so, although — yet, both — 
if —(hen, neither — nor , whether — or, and though — 

rmer in each of these pairs maybe called the correlative 
c ,f ,] ad | "gether they connect the same parts, etc. 

S metimea two or more words not united are taken together and 

called a Complex Conjunction. 
The prinoipa] complex conjunctions are as if, as well as, but that 
ept that, even though, inasmuch as, seeing that, etc. 

BxiBOISl I. — Parse the conjunctions in the following sentence: — 
Bgb truth and error each exerts great influence, yet truth must prevail, 
nob M it is the greater power." 

s. — And. — Truth and error. — "And" is a conjunction, "A Con- 

:: i- i word, etc."; — conjunctive, because it denotes, etc.; — it connects 

. . nouns truth and error between which it is placed. 

gk. — Though truth and error each exerts great influence, (yet) truth 

must prevail. — "Though" is a conjunction, "A Conjunction is, etc."; — it is 

the correlative of yet, and with yet connects the two sentences above given* 

}"(/. — (Though) truth and error each exerts great influence, yet truth must 

ill. — " \\t" is a conjunction, "A Conjunction, etc." ; — it is the correlative 

of the gk, and with though connects the two sentences between which it is 

1. 

ismuch as. — Truth must prevail, inasmuch as it is the greater power.— 

" is a complex conjunction, "A Complex Conjunction is, etc."; 

— it the two sentences, Truth must prevail, and it is the greater power, 

D whirh it is placed. 

the conjunctions in the following sentences: — 

m at proceed from the sun. If we cannot remove pain, we may 

at least alleviate it. Both men went to sea, but only one returned. The 

prison, r at the bar both planned and executed the deed, as I will prove. 

m acknowledged his weakness, yet persisted m the habit. 

I will not argue with you; for, though I can convince your judgment, I 

nverf your heart. Neither threat nor punishment moved him from 

principal nobles were delivered up as hostages and were 

. although honorable treatment had been promised to 

thcM ' I philosophers disputed whether the world was made by 

> divine mind. 

Ex e I* [fi EL— Parse also the articles, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, 
xorl :,u,i pwpotttioM, in the foregoing sentences. 



INTERJECTIONS — CLASSES OF inii:;:.ii:< [IOMB, 97 



INTERJECTIONS. 



An Interjection is a word used in exclamation, bo 

express some emotion of the mind; its, II iw! 

alas! halloo! 

CLASSES OF INTERJECTIONS. 

The following are the principal classes of interjeotioni s — 

1. — Those expressive of joy or exultation; a-. </ ; <, oAo, 

huzza; 

2. — Of sorrow; as, ah, alas, oh; 

3. — Of surprise or wonder; as, ha, indeed, what ; 

4. — Of contempt or disgust ; as, hah, faugh, fie, fJi, humph, pah, 
pish, pshaw, tush, tut; 

5. — Of attention or calling aloud ; as, aJkoy, beh<>Jd, taOoO, hark, 
ho, lo, look, sec, soho, whoa; 

6. — Of silence; as, hist, hush, nur/n, whist ; 

7. — Of addressing, saluting, or taking leave; as, adieu, firewcll, 
hail, good-by, go<>d-d<nj, ; 

8. — Of laughter; as, ha-ha, he-he, te-he ; 

9. — Of interrogation; as, '//. ; < 

is always a capital, and is us.-.l before the name <>f a person 
or thing acTdn 

Some words used as interject] »ns may 1 ; as other parfq 

of speech by supplying the words evidently omitted; thus, 
means, it is horrible; see! means, see thou or gnu. 

Exercise I. — Parse the interjection in the following — 

" Hurrah ! the day is gained." 

Mod e l.— Hurrah.— (Tt has no grammati' 
an in .., " An Interjection is a word, et expressive of 

exultation. 

Parse the interjection* in the following sentence!: — 

king, live forever ! Oh ! what a fall was there, my countrymen ! F«w. 



PT0BD8 USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 

alas! lurrived to tell the tale. What! feed a child's body and starve its 
. I hope to see you again. Alas! by some degree of 
mast gain. 

[81 i \ m — Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, adjectives, ^erbs, 
adrei itions, and conjunctions in the preceding sentences. 

[81 III.— Compose sentences, each of which shall contain all the 
Boh. 



WOUDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 



It has already been shown that the same word may "belong to 

- nt parts of speech, according to its different uses. 
The following are the most important words which vary in their 

: — 

As is (1) a Conjunction simply, when it means since, because; 
"As he was ambitious, I slew him." 
(2 ) — an Adverb, when it denotes time, degree, or manner; 
as, " Do as I do." — " He spoke as we entered." 
Before is (1) an Adverb, when it denotes time simply; as, "The 
Indians never saw a ship before" 
(2) — a Preposition, when followed by a noun or a pronoun 
in the objective case; as, "The world was before him." 
So also are after, ere, till, until. 
Both ifl (1) a Pronominal Adjective, when it limits or represents a 
noun; as, "Both criminals were condemned, and both 
were hung." 
(2) — ft Conjunction, when it aids in connecting words or 
atences; as, "James both reads and writes well." 
also are either and neither. 

M ifl (!) a Preposition, when it means except; as, "All remained 
but him." 
[2)— an Adverb, when it means only; as, "He was but 

among the many who were slain." 
[3 j— a Conjunction, when it connects words or sentences; 
as, " I go, but I will return." 



WOEDS USED AS DIFFEBKNT PARTS OF BPEEl n. 

For is (l)a Conjunction, when it connects w 

and is used in giving a reason; as, "Thej iril 
succeed, for they are inattenti 
(2) — a Preposition, when it is followed bya nou,n 
noun in the objective 
ybr good conduct." 
So alsv) is notwithstanding. 

Since is (1) a Preposition, when followed bya noon in 

case denoting a portion of time, or a | 

"No greater event lias happene 1 m 
(2) — a Conjunction, when it denol 

boy must obey, since his father commands." 
(3) — an Adverb simply, or a conjunctive adverb, when it 

denotes time; as, "I have not Been him since." — 

years have passed since it happened. 11 
That is (1) a Relative Pronoun, when who, whom, or which ma; 

substituted for it; as, "Solomon was t! man 

that ever lived." — "All thai heard him were as- 
tonished." 
(2) — a Pronominal Adjective, when it limits or 

a noun; as, "Thai event caused joy in all hearts." — 

" This word may be used for thai, M 
(3) — a Conjunction, when it is used to 

as, " Live well, that you may die well."' 
Then is (1) a Conjunction, when it means in (hoi CO 

sequence; as, "If this is justi I want 1 

of it." 
(2) — an Adverb, when it denotes time; as, M Alfred was 

then king." 
What is (1) a Relative Pronoun, when thing which or things which 

may be substituted for it; as, "What he - 

obtained." 
(2) — an Interrogative Pronoun, wlmn i 

question ; as, " What caused the 
(3) — a Pronominal A imply, when it limits an 

as, k ' What fame I 
(4) — a Pronominal A lj 

Bame time, when it limits a noun, and w 

or those whi 
sis survive I 
(5)_ ar Adverb, when it m ///; as, "What by 



100 GENERAL EXERCISES IJST PARSING. 

ami ichat by sword, the whole country was laid 

^viistc." 
( g ) — au Interjection, when used as an exclamation express- 
in- surprise; as, "What! did he commit that crime?" 
While is (1) a Noun, when it denotes space of time; as, "For a 

while we thought him innocent." 
(o ) — an Adverb, when it denotes during the time that; as, 

" I will work while you rest." 
(3) — a Verb, when it means to spend or pass; as, "He 

travelled merely to while away the time." 
Yet is (1 ) — an Adverb, when it means in addition, thus far, at the 

present time; as, " He adduced yet one more argument 

to prove his point." 
(2) — a Conjunction, when it means notwithstanding, never- 

theless; as, " Though the land has become a wilderness, 

yet industry may reclaim it." 

GENERAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The parsing of the following sentences and extracts requires the 
use of all the preceding models : — 

Charles Martel conquered the Saracens. Men's minds are swayed by 
various passions. Time flies. The eagle seized the child in his talons 
and flew away. When did you come? When the dykes were broken, the 
water overflowed the country for many miles. Adieu, I will see you soon 
again. 

Improve the moments while they pass. I do not think it worth while to 
continue the useless search. While he lived his power stood firm: few 
indeed loved his government; but those who hated it most, hated it less 
than they feared it. Thus they whiled away many hours beside the brook, 
until the distant thunder warned them to retrace their steps. 

The ron sets in a cloud. The leaves are dyed with the gorgeous tints 

of autumn. The king sat on his throne. He died by the assassin's blow. 

hip lay motionless on the unruffled waters. Winter set in early, and 

ground was frozen before Mary could set out her hyacinths along the 

b rders. Where have you laid my pencil? It lay just now on the,. 

on must confers that you lied when you told that tale. I 

lain awake the whole night. 

mi make haste, the opportunity will soon be lost. If reason were 

I away, where were man's superiority ? Happiness is found solely 

r with the rich nor with the poor. I will speak daggers to her, but 



GENERAL EXERCISES i\ PAB8ING, 101 

use none. Whom did you sec ? Either oondition inx . 

ious suspense. Whose books are these? Neither fulfilled •>, | 

friends. Ye are my friends, if ye d i wh Wlll 

part in peace, since we must part. . 

What joy filled all hearts when the Dewi I f the \ 
Man has earned his bread by the Bweat of his brow - | ,!1. After 

the wind had changed, a fleet of forty , , WM 

compelled either to retreat or to surrender. Two men-of-wai wore wr- 
near Cape Ilatteras. He misapplied what little real ill 
declared to-morrow which pupil has obtained the 
young, and one was beautiful. Whal k 
by genius, and what by study. New! m'l l 
depths of wisdom. 

Whatever property he had at first, I know that now ill il 
Into the sheet of water reflecting the flushed sky in th< f tho 

living picture, a knot of urchins were cai 1 watching 1 1 1 • 

panding of the rippling circles. 

We all have two educations, one of which wo receive from othen | al 
other, and the more valuable, that which we give to 

which fixes our grade in sooioty, and eventually our actual oondition in this 
life, and the color of our fate hereafter. All : i the world can 

not make us wise or good men without our owl if such we 

are determined to be, the want of them will not prevail. 

That government would be thought hard whi<h BO 
tenth part of their time to be employed in it 
many of us much more, if we reckon all that is ipenl in ebft 
doing nothing, with that which is sprnt in idlo ei in nraow* 

ments which amount to nothil - '^7 

shortens life. Sloth, like *hile the 

key often used is always bright. 

I see before me the Lie: 

He leans upon his hand j 

Consent? t i death, but oonqm 

And his drooped head - 

And through I '" w 

From th 

Lik< 

Tin- I 
Ere ceasel the inhuman ■ • l0 wol, • 



Part Third. 

SYNTAX. 



Syntax treats of sentences, and teaches how to cort- 
Ftrucl them from words. 

A Sentence is two or more words (one of whioh must 
be a finite verb) so combined as to make complete sense; 
as, u Water flows." — " Experience gives wisdom." 

The complete sense contained in a sentence is called 
a Proposition, and every sentence is said to contain a pro- 
position. 

The name sentence is applied to all the words taken in combina- 
fcion; proposition, to the thought which they express; therefore, 
"Water flows/' is both a sentence and a proposition. 

expression of thought in successive sentences is termed 

A Phrase is two or more words combined, forming one 
expression but not making complete sense; as, To seek its 
' : in general; to a great degree. 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCOEDIM TO USE. 

Sentences may be divided, according to the manner in 

whirl, they arc used, into Declarative, Interrogative, Im- 

. and Exclamatory. 

A Declarative Sentence is one which is used to affirm 

w to deny ; as, " The sun shines." — " Dishonesty will not 

per. M 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES AOOOBDING 10 PORK, 1 

Declarative sentences are far m >re nun 

th «e belonging to the other classes ; tl 

Fences of the other classes by the manner use, 

An Interrogative Sentence is one which is used 
question; as, " Does the sun shine?" 

An Imperative Sentence i> one whieh is n-.d in 
a command, an entreaty, or a permission, by meant of I 
verb in the imperative mode; as, kk Let the bud Bhine." — 
" Be persuaded." 

An Exclamatory Sentence is one whiqh is oaed in 
damation, or to express strong emotion; as, "ll«.\v the 
sun shines!" — "Alas, we are losi I" 

Exercise. — Mention to which c&mi each of the foUowfalg Fcntencci 
belongs, and give the reason : — 

Model 1. — "The sun gives light" — This- U a & 
because it is one which is used to affirm somethi 

2. — " Obey your parents." — This is an imper 
one which is used to express a command by m< .. in the im- 

perative mode. 

The winds blow. The stars are shining. tl is 

truth? Control your passions. Great office- how 

thoughtless I am! Who conquered Gaul? C ;1 - Know 

thyself. May you be happy. What |] it a 

emotion. Bring me the captive now. ( my 

countrymen! The buds will expand in( *ho 

can he against us? Between virtue and 
If thine enemy hin 2 him. In what 

for a lodge in some vast wild rneei I Faint 1 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FORM. 

ire divided accordi 
Simple, Complex, and ( iompouncL 

A Simple Sentence La one which oohtaii pro- 

ton; as, " I will 



104 CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCOEDING TO FORM. 

A Complex Sentence is one which contains a proposition 
qualified by one or more other propositions; as, "He 
said that he would go" — "I will go, if you stay." — "I 
will go when you return" — " He who is diligent shall be 
rewarded." 

Clauses. — The propositions in complex sentences are 
called Clauses. 

Example 1. — In the sentence, "It is well known that idleness 
leads to crime/' the clauses are It is well known, and that idleness 
leads to crime. 

Example 2, — In the sentence, "When we go forth in the morning, 
we lay a moulding hand upon our destiny/' the clauses are When 
we go forth in the morning, and we lay a moulding hand upon our 
destiny. 

Clauses may be divided into two classes; Independent 
(or Principal), and Dependent (or Qualifying). 

An Independent Clause is one which would contain com- 
plete sense if used alone. 

In the first example, It is well known, is the independent or 
principal clause; and in the second example, We lay a moulding 
hand upon our destiny, is the independent or principal clause. 

A Dependent Clause is one which depends upon another 
clause and qualifies its meaning. 

In the first example, That idleness leads to crime, is the dependent 
clause; and in the second, When we go forth in the morning, is the 
dependent or qualifying clause. 

In some complex sentences each of the propositions qualifies the 
other, and neither is strictly independent; as, " The less wit a man 
has, the less he knows his need of it." 

Qualifying clauses may themselves be qualified by other clauses; 
as, " I will go with you, if you remain until I return. y> 

A Compound Sentence is one which contains two or more 
Bentences, simple or complex; as, "The trees are shaken 
by the wind, and the leaves strew the ground" — u I will go, 
but you mud stay until I return." 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING T( KOKM. [Oo 

Members. — The simple or the complei Buitenoee con- 
tained in a compound sentence are called M 

Example. — In the compound sentence, " L< i t us * 
and, if Providence smile, success will crown our 
hers are the simple sentence, Let us work diligently, and the 
plex sentence, i/* Providence smile, s 

Members may be named according to their position in th< 
tence, as first (or leading) mem? 

Extended members may be subdivided into $econdary 

The terms clause and member must not be misapplied* Clause* 
belong to complex sentences; members, t<» compound; but aa< 
pound sentences may contain complex sentences, the former maj 
also, secondarily, contain clauses. 

The connection of Clauses ani> Membeb& — The 
clauses of complex sentences are usually connected by 
relative pronouns, by conjunctive adverb*, or by c&ryund 
denoting cause, comparison, conseqyu nce,purpoS( . 
or supposition. 

The members of a compound sentence arc usually con- 
nected by conjunctions denoting addition, Beporatfonj <>r 
choice. 

Sometimes the conjunctions are not mentioned; as, M I m 
would come/' for "I wish that he would come/ 1 — " Time 
seize the present moment." 

Sometimes the qualifying clause is used without any 
word; as, "I will come, whatever happen." 

Exercise.— Classify the following tenfeneet; mention the } > 

clauses, members, and connectives, and .-tatc the reasons:— 

Model 1. — rt Books afford instruction."— 1 
is two or more words, etc." ;— declarative firms something |— 

simple, because it contains a single proposition. 

2. — "Did you see the gentleman vrho Si » " cn - 

tence," A Sentence is two or more n 
used to ask a question ;— complex, 1 
by another proposition. The inde] 

you see the gentleman ; the dependent or lUtd 

ytsterday;— these clauses are connected by the relative uho. 



106 EXERCISES. 

5, — "He replied, that, he hastened to deliver the message as o*n as he 
received it.'' — This is a sentence," A Sentence is, etc."; — declarative, because 
it is u<cd, etc. : — complex, because it contains a proposition which introduces 
an.'! her proposition which is itself qualified by a third. 

The independent clause or principal proposition is, He replied; the first 
dependent clause or proposition is, that he hastened to deliver the message; 
this proposition is qualified by a third, namely, as soon as he received it. The 
first proposition and the second are connected by the conjunction that, the 
second and the third by the complex adverb as soon as. 

4. — "The sun sets and the mountains are shaded."— This is a sentence, 
* A Sentence is, etc."; — declarative, because, etc.; — compound, because it con- 
tains two simple sentences, The sun sets, and the mountains are shaded, — which 
are members, not clauses, and are connected by the conjunction and. 

Man proposes, but God disposes. Falsehood aids no honest cause. Take 
heed to thy thoughts. The wise man is happy when he has gained his own 
approbation. We should learn to economize our time. Let us be temperate 
in all things. Bighteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach to any 
people. Every wrong opinion tends to do harm in this world. Laziness 
grows on people ; it begins in cobwebs, and ends in iron chains. Adversity is 
the mint in which God stamps upon us his image and his superscription. 

Soft, purple clouds come sailing over the sky, and through their vapory 
folds the winking stars shine, white as silver. If we study history, we 
should endeavor to obtain books of the best authority. As soon as it touched 
the water, it sunk. The more we have, the more we want. Who lives vir- 
tuously, dies happy. Talk to the point, and stop when you have reached 
it. The more you think, the better will you express your thoughts. What- 
ever be the consequences, I will abide by them. Besides the falsehoods 
which people designedly speak, there is a kind which springs from negligence, 
hastiness, or a warm imagination. 

All human weal and woe, learn thou to make thine own. Acquaint thy- 
self with God, if thou wouldst taste his works. Columbus was the first Eu- 
ropean who set his foot in the new world which he had discovered. There is 
a pleasure in the pathless woods. I sat down on a little hill within sight 
of my home, but I did not venture to approach it, for I felt remorse as I 
thought of the recklessness with which I had squandered my earnings. 

Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
Had in her sober livery all things clad. 

He who ascends to mountain tops, shall find 

The loftiest peaks most wrapped in clouds and snow. 



DIVISIONS OF SVN I \\. 1(,7 

DIVISIONS OF SYNTAX. 

Syntax may be considered under two divi&JOns ; Analy- 
sis and Synthesis. 

Analysis means a taking apart; Synthesis, a pid 

Analysis, in Grammar, is tlie separation of e 

into the parts which compose them. 

Synthesis is the construction or formation of Bent 

from words. 

By the former process, the parts of a sentenoe, theil OOOntotfaoi 

and their various qualifications, are shown. 

By the latter process, the principles relating to the eombii 
of the different classes of words, and the manner of applyii 
principles in the formation of sentences, are shown. 

These two processes should be carried on together in ok 
understand fully the nature of sentences. 

Ellipsis. — In sentences there often occurs an omu 
of one o£ more words, phrases, or clauses, which 
necessary to complete the sense and construction; 
"James's conduct is more praiseworthy than II«i, 
(conduct)" Such an omission is called Elli, 

v Pleonasm. — Sometimes more words than are abso- 
lutely necessary are used to express an idea; as, "1 be truth, 
what is it?"— "He sees with his pyes } and he 
ears" Such a use is called Pleonasm* 



ANALYSIS. 



THE PARTS OP SENTENCES. 
The Parts of Sentences, as contained in <!' 
the Essential, the* Secondary (or Qualifying 
ing, and the Independent. 



] ( »S ANALYSIS. 

Essential Parts, — The Essential Parte are those 
without which a sentence cannot be formed. 

Every sentence contains two essential parts; the Subject 
and the Predicate, 

The Subject is that of which something is said or as- 
serted; as, "Water flows." 

The Predicate is that which is said or asserted of the 
subject; as " Water flows" 

A subject and a predicate combined form a proposition 
or sentence. 

The term proposition applies to simple sentences, the clauses of 
complex, and the members of compound sentences. 

Example 1. — In the sentence, "Water flows," water is that con- 
cerning which flows is asserted; and flows is that which is asserted 
of water. 

Water is, therefore, the subject, and flows, the predicate; and the 
two parts combined make the sentence or proposition, namely, 
"Water flows." 

Example 2. — In the sentence, "The waters of the Mississippi 
River flow into the Gulf of Mexico," The waters of the Mississippi 
River is that of which flow into the Gulf of Mexico is asserted; and 
flow into the Gulf of Mexico is that which is asserted of the waters 
of the Mississippi River, 

The waters of the Mississippi River is, therefore, the subject, 
and flow into the Gulf of Mexico is the predicate; the two parts 
combined make the sentence or proposition, namely, " The waters 
of the Mississippi River flow into the Gulf of Mexico." 

Example 3. — In the sentence, "The waters of the Mississippi 
River, and the streams of Texas, flow southward, and empty into 
the Gulf of Mexico," The waters of the Mississippi River, and the 
streams of Texas, is that of which flow southward, and empty into 
(he Oulf of Mexico, is asserted, and flow southward, and empty into 
the Qulf of Mexico, is that which is asserted of the waters of the 
ML Hssippi River, and the streams of Texas. 

The I raters of the Mississippi River, and the streams of Texas is, 
therefore, the subject, and flow southward, and empty into the 
Gulf of Mexico, the predicate; the two parts combined make the 
fccntcnce or proposition, namely, "The waters of the Mississippi 



DISTINCTIONS OF SUBJECT! AM> im:i:im< vrr. 

River, and the streams of Texas, Q(w southward, in I 

:he Gulf of Mexico/' 

DISTINCTIONS OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

The subject may be distinguished as Simp' * 
or Compound. 

The predicate also may be distinguished to 
Complex, or Compound. 

These distinctions can be perceived in the three 8XAIH] ' 
on the preceding page. 

SIMPLE SUBJECT. 

The Simple Subject is a noun or a pronoun, or e 
word, phrase, or clause, used as a QOUn; as "TFi 
flows."— "It flows."— " They is a pronoun."— «21 
is shameful." — "That the earth is round, can be proved.* 1 

— "'Might makes right/ is often quoted." — "/'.■ 

virtue for virtue's sake is foreign to our nature." 

When clauses are used as subjects, they must, of 
themscl ves separated into subjects and predical 

When the simple subject is a noun, a pronoun, or §omc 
used as a noun, it is called the subject-nominal 

When a phrase or a clause is used a- a Bubjeot, it may 
a subject-phrase or a subject-clause. 

Many sentences have a simple subject onlj 
quered GauL" 

SIMPLE PRBDIOATB. 

The Simple Predicate is always and .-imply a finite i 
as, " Water flow8?— iC i\ might hath ft 

The simple predicate may be called I 
Many sentences I aple pre 

of true liberty was extinguished." 

COMPLEX BUB ' 

The Complex Subject is th simple subjed tal 

all its qualifications. 

10 



1 10 COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. 

The qualifications of a word aie those words, phrases, 
or clauses, which limit or qualify its meaning or use. 

The complex subject includes all that portion which 
precedes the simple predicate, in sense or order of thought; 
BSj "The waters of the Mississippi River flow." 

In the example given, the noun waters is the simple subject, and 
the article the, and the phrase, of the Mississippi River, are the 

qualifications of the simple subject: together, these three portions 
constitute the complex subject. 

Remark. — The order of expression does not always correspond 
with the order of thought, or the natural order. This is especially 
the case in poetry. Thus, in the sentence, " Sweet are the uses of 
adversity, " the natural order is, " The uses of adversity are sweet." 

When the parts of sentences, or their qualifications, occur out of 
their natural order, the sentences are said to be inverted. 



COMPLEX PREDICATE. 






The Complex Predicate is the simple predicate taken 
with all its qualifications; as, "Waters flow into the Gulf 
of Mexico" 

The complex predicate includes all that portion of the 
sentence which succeeds the subject in the order of 
thought. 

In the example, the finite verb flow is the simple predicate, and 
the phrase into the Gulf of Mexico is its qualification: these two 
portions constitute the complex predicate. 






COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. 

A Compound Subject is one which consists of two or 
more simple or complex subjects, united by one or more 
conjunctions; as, "Waters and streams flow." 

A Compound Predicate is one which consists of two or 
more simple or complex predicates, united by one or more 
conjunctions; as, "Waters flow and empty" 

A simple sentence or single proposition often contains a compound 



COMPOUND SUBJECT AND OOMPOCUTD PBHD] am. Ill 

ject combined with a compound prod in 
may be changed into a compound scntem 
subject for each predicate-verb, or the proper ■ 
each subject; but this must not be done, unli 
passage demand it. 

In the sentence, "The waters of the Mi .1 the 

streams of Texas, flow southward, and eniptj into the (fall 
Mexico/' the subject is compound, consisting 
subjects, namely. The waters of the M mm 

of Texas, which are united by the conjunct'^ irith 

a compound predicate consisting of the two compl 
mnUhward, and empty into the Gulf of Mexico, which are n 
the conjunction and. 

Secondary Parts. — The qualifications of tin- c^mtial 
parts are called the Secondary or Qualifying Pa 

tence. These consist of words, phrases, or clan 

Connecting Parts. — Relative pronouns, conjunct! 

and conjunctive adverbs, are called the C 
of a sentence. 

The relative pronoun is often an essential, a qualifying, 
connecting part, at the same time: as, " B 

Who is here a subject, ami at the same t ; nm qualifies the | I 
he. and connects it with runs. In the sentence, "The mi 
hore ItMi. has discovered the thief," i 

ing or secondary, and a connecting part. 

Exercise ox Subjects and P b e B 1 a s n 

Complex. — Classify and analyze the folio* | the 

rimple and the complex Bubjectt, an I 

— according to the models : — 

Model 1. — " Every man n 

ll Ufcd, 
etc.; — simple, bee 

The complex subje 
native, is man. Tlv *, becaute 

H has no qualifications. 

2. — "Tb il." 

This is a sen ten c icclarative, because it is ufed, 

9tc. ; — simple, be 



112 EXKUcrSE ON SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES, ETC. 

The OQmplex subject is The love of money ; — the complex predicate is is the 
evil. The simple subject or subject-nominative is love; — the simple 
predicate or prodioate-verb is is. 

3. "A few storm-scarred oaks alone remained as he had seen them ic 
his boyhood." 

This is a sentence, "A Sentence is, etc."; — declarative, because it is used, 
ct<\ ; — complex, because it contains, etc. 

The independent or principal proposition is, A few storm-scarred oaks alone 
remained ; the dependent or qualifying proposition is, as he had seen them in 
4m bnyhood. The clauses are connected by the conjunctive adverb as. The 
complex subject of the principal proposition is A few storm-scarred oaks ; 
the complex predicate, alone remained. The simple subject or subject-nomi- 
native is oaks ; the simple predicate or predicate-verb is remained. 

In the dependent proposition there is no complex subject; the simple 
subject is the personal pronoun he; the complex predicate is had seen them in 
his boyhood; the simple predicate or predicate-verb is had seen. 

Ships sail. Birds sing. The bird sings sweetly. The ship sails down 
the stream. Hills rise above hills. The top of the hill is reached. No 
man lives to himself. Great virtues are rare. Nature is full of variety. 
Wooden fences divide the adjoining fields. The strangeness of his conduct 
occasioned much remark. Time rolls on. Such a sight I never saw. Hag- 
gard care gathered about his brow. The deadly tomahawk whirled through 
the air. Those fires were kindled at the altar of liberty. Want of punc- 
tuality is a species of falsehood. Change is stamped on all things. Gently 
the river flowed. 

A high order of intellect is required for the discovery of truth. In a calm 
sea every man is a pilot. Winter reveals what summer conceals. From a 
wild and lonely spot issued a small stream. What a wonderful piece of work 
it is ! To do good forget not. Genius needs industry as much as industry 
needs genius. Gluttony kills more than the sword. While I was waiting 
I passed the time in reading the "Atlantic Monthly," which I had purchased 
at a neighboring book-stand. 

I was hungry, and ye gave me no meat. The farmer raises grain, and the 
merchant sells it. Several years had passed away, and Ralph had almost 
ten the circumstance. Twelve years of successful industry made me 
a rich man; and, as soon as I could settle my affairs, I returned to England. 
Thefi are three periods for gathering the leaves of the tea-plant; the first 
I about the middle of April; the second begins at mid-summer; 
and th- hist is accomplished during August and September. 

relieve the poor is a source of joy. To do good was the key-note of his 
life. "Much coin, much care," is a proverb the truth of which many would 



EXERCISE OX SUBJECTS .\M> PREDICATES, BIC 118 

be glad to prove. "Beware ; „ nf(l , h# 

gate. The "No admittance here" wu Dot rigidly enforced; .-» hi limes 

soon initiated us into all the □ hM 

many a fall, is every proud man's 

than any of its parts, needs no proof. •• Pay a- 3 

To be virtuous is to be happy. When the oelebrat . bu 

not yet been announced. 

Exercise on Subjects and Prb d ] i- l i, Com- 

plex, and Compound. 

If del. 1. — u Days and months come and go/ 1 — Thi.« || 1 IttltRh 

tive. simple. The subject is compound, c ' jettS 

or subject-nominatives, days and month 9. The predicate \i I 

consisting of the two simple predicat< 

2. — ''Sensual pleasure weakens and mind."' — Thi- i- :i n 

declarative, simple. The complex subjt 

nominative is pleasure. The predicate is compoui : the two 

complex predicates, weakens (tin mind) an I 
rerbs are weakens and debases. 

Classify and analyze the following sentences 1 
models : — 

Truth and candor possess a powerful charm. Th- 
consistent. The tide ebbs and flows. I 

Ci'.-ero were the greatest orators of antiquity. In Him we livp. 1 
have our being. Pure air and free exercise are indil 
development. Flowers bud, bloom, and die. I must pink or iwiflL I 
fought, bled, and died for freedom. Th< 

are unbounded. Are fleets and an ■" "f l'» v * and 

reconciliation? Virtue and vice are eonl z»l- 

of water and twenty pounds of we! 
check upon my hand, and looked upon the lai 
and the most perfect harmony fall 1 

. iron, and lime are found in \ 

od through the rm - 

and the Cumberlan I 

became dr - 

• his life in an e 

masses of ice, eould 

fancied distinctions: but they will never, ai » *«* 

by the child, loved by the ignoi [ h J lho Wli# ' 

10» 



114 INDEPENDENT PARTS. 

" Down rushed the rain 
Impetuous, and continued till the earth 
No more was seen." 

Independent Parts. — Words and phrases which 
neither connect nor qualify, are called Independent Parts. 

The independent parts are, words which are used as the names 
of persons or things addressed or uttered in exclamation, phrases 
containing such words, interjections, and certain adverbs : — "Charles, 
when did you conie?" — "My dear friend, I am glad to see you."- 
"Oh! what joy filled his soul!" — "Well, the time has come." 

The words or the phrases also which denote merely subjects of 
thought, which stand apart, or are used parenthetically, are usually 
independent parts; as, "The boy — oh! where was he ?" — "Truth — 
what is it?" — "To say the least, it was very unexpected." 

The word or the words used in addressing may be 
called the Addressive. 

The addressive, like the subject and the predicate, may 
be distinguished as Simple, Complex, or Compound. 

The Simple Addressive is a noun or a pronoun, or a noun and a 
pronoun taken together; as, Man; thou ; thou man. 

The Complex Addressive is the simple addressive qualified; as, 
" Thou man of God." — " Thou who hear est prayer." 

The Compound Addressive is two or more simple or complex ad- 
dressives connected; as, " Thou prophet and thou man of God." 

Exercise on the Independent Parts of Sentences. — 
Analyze the addressives and the other independent parts contained in the fol- 
lowing sentences : — ■ 

Mode l. — " Wretched man of blood, what hast thou done ?" 

This sentence contains an independent part, namely, the phrase Wretched 
man of bloods — it is independent, because it does not qualify the subject or 
the predicate; — it is a complex addressive, because it contains a simple 
addressive, man, with its qualifications wretched and of blood. 

Gentlemen of the jury, listen to my words. Father, must I stay? There 
•- none left. Hurrah, hurrah, the field is won. My kite, how fast and far 
it flew! Well, if I admit your proposition, what follows? My little fellow, 
can you tell where Mr. Brown lives? Greece, there is magic in the sound! 
A hot day this, gentlemen. No; I will not remind you of these things. 



QUALIFICATIONS i)V Tin: SIMPLE BUI 

"Our country! Right or wron 
correct? 0, disgrace upon manh 
sound once delightful to every R man ear! b 

Scholars! jurists! artists! nhilantln 
companions of a celestial knightb r , \ y^\ t 

successful. Ah! my friends, what lips tin se \\ i 






Bird of the broad and m 
Thy home is high in hei l 

Thou happy, happy elf! 

(But Stop — first let me kiss away tl 

Thou tiny imi 
(My love, he's poking peas int.. 

Thou merry, Laughing Bpritel 

With spirits feather 
UntouchM by Borrow, and nnsoil'd by sin — 
(Good heavens! the child is swallowing :i 

THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE BDfPLl t 

The Simple Subject, when it is a noun, may be qualified 

in the following ways : — 

1. — By an article; as, " The hour has • •"ni''.'' 

2- — By an explanatory (appositional) Doun <>r pronoun In the 
nominative case ; as, "Friend William hi •' 

has corne." 

'•'j. — By a noun or a pronoun in the p 
hour has come." — "My hour has come." 

4. — By a preposition with its 
come." 

5. — By an adjective; a-. , '/'' u int I 
; Bins." 

6. — By a participle; as, " II ■ 

7.— By a verb in the infinitn 
have begun." 

S._Bv B ,.];,;; 

dlty were nuin 
When the simple eul 
■cations of a noun. 

p >ssessive a 



116 QUALIFICATIONS OF WOKDS QUALIFYING, ETC. 

The same subject may have all the preceding qualifications in the 
same sentence. 

Any qualifying word, or two or more words taken as one qualify- 
ing term, may be called an Adjunct, 

Exercise. — Mention (1) the complex subject; (2) the subject noun 
or pronoun; and (3) its qualijiers or adjuncts, in each of the following 

sentences: — 

Mode l. — " The ripe apples fall to the ground." 

In this sentence, the complex subject is The ripe apples; the subject 
noun is apples; its adjuncts are the article the and the adjective ripe. 

The man himself is present. The voice of nature cries aloud. The yellow 
flakes of gold glistened among the rocks. A gloomy forest of pines ap- 
peared in the distance. The gift of prophecy is no longer bestowed on 
man. Our glorious country has achieved a proud pre-eminence among the 
nations of the earth. Few who heard his words could withhold their sym- 
pathies. Lions, being satisfied, are for the time harmless. Charles's in- 
dulgent father yielded where he should have refused. They each required 
assistance. He, Washington, is all our own. The secret acts of men are 
known only to the Almighty. An opportunity to leave was allowed to 
every scholar. Children, being praised, become vain. I, James Brown, 
having seen, can truly testify. The suppliant's prayer for mercy was 
unheeded. 

THE QUALIFICATIONS OF WORDS QUALIFYING 
THE SIMPLE SUBJECT. 

Qualifying words may themselves be qualified : thus : — 

I. A noun may be qualified in all respects as the subject noun. 

II. An adjective may be qualified; — 

1. — By a preposition with its object; as, " Full of care." 

2. — By an adverb; as, "Very full of care." 

3. — By an infinitive; as, "Heavy to be borne." 

The qualifying adverb may itself be qualified ; — 

1.— By a preposition with its object; as, "Your letter, very full. 
agreeably to promise, of interesting news, has been received." 

2. — By another adverb; as, "Demands not very exorbitant may 
be satisfied." 

III. An infinitive, or a participle, may be qualified; — 

L — By an object; as, "Quickness to take offence should be 
avoided." — "A rub directing you shall be given." 



EXERCISES. 1 1 7 

2,— By a preposition vt.A\ its object; M, " .'he time I 
energy has come." — "A man acting with \ 

3. — By an adverb; as, "The time bo 
"A man acting promptly may gain his aim." 

4. — By an infinitive; as, "The time to begin 
come." — "Moments requiring to be improved are aon beii ." 



REMARKS. 

An infinitive, or a participle with its adjun g a 

phrase, may be used as a simple subject. (Page 1 

The participle when thus used may be qualified by a | 
as, "His telling the truth saved his life." 

An infinitive, or a participle, when used as a subject, ma] 
qualified by a noun, an adjective, or a participle need indep 
(or abstractly) ; as, " To be a ma?i." — ' 4 To be virtuous" — * 
never seeing the light of day." — " Being a ma 

It seems necessary to state here, that the infinitive or the p 
may have, either when qualifying the subject, <>r when 
a subject, the qualifications of the simple predicate <»r ] 
verb. 

The addressive may be qualified in nearly every reaped Li] 
Bubject-nominative. 

So also may the noun or the pronoun in independent parts which 
denote mere subjects of thought, etc. 

Exercise. — Mention (1) the simple suhject ; (2) its qualifying w 
(3) the adjuncts of the qualifying words ; and (4) the wholi 01 
•ubject, in each of the following sentences : — 

Model 1. — "The truth of this proposition ia evid< 

In this sentence, the simple subject is the noun truth ; if* adjunct! are the 
article the and of this proposition; the pronominal I t»* 

qualifying adjunct of the noun proposition. 

The whole or complex subject ia, Tht truth <f \k 

2. — "Being placed at the head of animal ,nr "• 

ought we not to improve this g] 

In this sentence, the Bimple subject is the 
j the partic : ple being placed. />'■ 

i;adjuncts, at the head of anil ' the 

i first adjunct, at the head, the noun head I 
the adjunct of animated nature, in which the noun nature j» qualified by 



118 QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SIMPLE PREDICATE. 

the adjcctiro animated; in the second adjunct, by the gift, the noun gijl is 
qualified by the articie the, and by the adjunct of reason. 

The whole or complex subject is we, being placed at the head of animated 
nature by the gift of reason. 

3. — "The request to be allowed to attend the opening ceremonies in a 
body was granted/' 

In this sentence, the simple subject is the noun request; this is qualified 
by the article the, and by the infinitive to be allowed. To be allowed is 
qualified by the second infinitive to attend ; to attend is qualified by its object 
ceremonies, and by the adjunct in a body ; ceremonies is qualified by the arti- 
cle the and by the participial adjective opening, and a qualifies body in the 
adjunct in a body. 

The soft breezes of early summer are rustling the leaves. The strength 
of his mind overcame every calamity. Man, the occupant of the soil, was as 
wild as the savage scene. Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's self. The 
order to unfurl the sails was obeyed with alacrity. The practice of embalm- 
ing was common in ancient Egypt. To what holier service can a nation's 
lifetime be devoted ? Alexander, the conqueror of the Persian empire, died 
at Babylon. The preservation of our civil and religious rights demands 
prompt and unwearied action. Conscience, enlightened by the word of God, 
is a faithful monitor. An active daily press, vigilant from party interest, 
watches the progress of society. 

Youth, unadmonished by a guide, will trust to any fair outside. Over- 
head bends the blue and sunny sky. The whole mountain side on the 
western bank of the river above Thebes is one vast city of the dead. A 
friendly Indian, pursuing the chase, met them. Wild-looking men with 
black, snaky locks and eyes that shone like the torches, were devouring 
their macaroni. In a remote field stood a large tulip-tree, apparently of a 
century's growth. Was there not true heroism in this boy's conduce ? 

Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again ; 

The eternal years of God are hers ; 
But Error, wounded, writhes in pain, 

And dies among his worshipers. 

THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SIMPLE PREDICATE. 

The simple predicate or predicate-verb may be qualified 
in the following ways : — 

1. — By a noun or a pronoun in the nominative case, which means 
the same person or thing as the subject-nominative ; as, " Kings are 



QUALIFICATIONS OF THE VTOBDB, U$ 

men. 1 ' — "I am lie" — "Napoleon wag proclaimed • mp< ror." 
pey retired victor." 

The predicate-verb is thus qualified only wheo it [| an i 
verb, or a transitive verb in the 

This qualifier may be called the 

This qualifier may be added by means of the |; as, 

" lie acted as media, or." 

2. — By a noun in the objective ease; as, " Thej I 

The predicate-verb is thus qualified only when it is I trai 
verb, or an intransitive verb used transitively. 

3. — By a preposition with its object ; as, " Be came ; 

4. — By an adjective describing or limiting 
is eternal." , 

5. — By a participle relating to tho Bubjectj M, " He 
funning" 

6. — By an adverb; as, "William came speedily" 

7. — By an infinitive; as, " He came to s 

8. — By a clause; as, "William discovered thai he 

The same predicate may have all the pi I 

the same sentence. 

THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE WORDS Willi 11 
THE SIMPLE PBBDIOAXB. 

Words which qualify the simple predicate may them- 
selves be qualified in all the ways in which tin 
parts of speech occurring in the oomp 

\ qualified. (Pages 116, 117.) 

An infinitive or a participle may r 
I which the predicata-verb can take. 

An infinitive or a participle, with or without 
constitute a predicate-nominative; as, " To Ml 

I^.bois*.— Mention (1) the 

I*) th* adjunct* of the qualifying* ** 

dicate, in each of the following sentence?:— 

Model 1.— ."Falsehood ;< ; I 
In this sentence, the simpl< 
fag word is its object cave. The a* ' of 

the noun cause. The whole or complex predicate U, aide no honest cau-. 



120 CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES. 

Model 2. — "The new heirs of time are always seeking to make improve- 
ments in the political and social habitations which they have inherited." 

In this sentence, the simple predicate or predicate-verb is are seeking. Its 
qualifying words are the adverb always, and the infinitive to make, which is 
itself qualified by its object, the noun improvements. Improvements is quali- 
fied by the adjunct in political and social habitations, in which the noun 
habitations is qualified by the article the, and by the adjectives political and 
social (connected by and), and by the clause which they have inherited. The 
predicate-verb of this clause is have inherited, which is qualified by its object 
the relative ivhich. 

The whole or complex predicate is, are ahoays seeking to make improvements 
in the political and social habitations which they have inherited. 

The thunder of the cannon shook the city. The elm is a noble tree. John 
Adams was the second president of the United States. Beware of covetous- 
ness. The ground produced abundantly. The storm was upon us. We 
should have courage to do right. How many books did he purchase? True 
happiness always seeks some company. He bade all who were present 
remember his last words. Children who have no home rarely become good 
citizens. The various fruit trees are in their glory and wealth of beauty. 
It is delightful to lean against their trunks and listen to the hum and watch 
the busy motions of the honey-gathering bees. 

Large was his bounty. Westward the course of empire takes its way. 
Without these three things — the prison, the school, and the hearth — social 
order could not be maintained for a twelvemonth. They have left us an 
example already inscribed on the world's memory. No works of art can 
withstand the incessant strokes of time. Man should be ashamed to refuse 
to learn the lessons taught by the spider, the ant, and the bee. It will be 
the duty of the historian and the sage in all ages to let no occasion pass 
of commemorating the virtues of our illustrious Washington. 

CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES. 

A phrase may be named according to the part of speech 
to which its principal or leading word belongs, or accord- 
ing to the manner in which it qualifies. 

The following are the principal phrases : — 

1. — The Appositional Phrase; as, "Vice, the fruitful source of 
misery, must be shunned/' 

2. — The Prepositional Phrase; as, "He was noted for Ms love 
of science. 71 



CLASSIFICATION OF DKPF.XPKNT ( I..\rsr>. 121 

3 —The Adjective Phrase; as, "Faithf 

the appointed time." 

4.— The Adverbial Phi | 

a little cottage.'' 

5. — The Infinitive Phn 
tarih." 

6. — The Participial Phrase; as, U R \ng j ' ,7, tho 

tree grew rapidly." 

When the infinitive phrase, or the participial, is used ai 
it is called the Subject Phrase; as, " To s< 

7. — The Absolute Phrase; as, " 
sails flapped idly against the ma* 

The leading noun or pronoun and the p 
may be qualified, the former as a sul as a 

predicate-verb, is qualified. 

This phrase is equivalent to a proposition — a 
clause. It is called absolute, because it is a/.* /rom 

its prepositional form and made a phrase. 

8. — The Independent Phrase (p. 114); as, "Olong expected day! 
begin." 

REMARKS. 

The independent phrase qualifies neither 

The absolute phrase qualifies the subject and the | com- 

bined, or the whole proposition. 

The other phrases may qualify either sul 

\ CLASSIFICATION OF DEI 

Dependent clauses may receive special namee from 
I position in sentences, or from the manner in whi 

qualify. 

The following are the most important : — 

1.— The Subject Clause; as, " W 
all men are mortal, needs no ar^ 

2.-The Predicate Clause; as, "It ii oertwn 04 truth mutt 
conquer." 

■ 3.— The Object Clause; as, < Tl ^ knows that he U 

•ant." — " I lea 

£.— The Relative (or Adjective I ruiu, maj 

/•ead."— " The wisdom u> 

il 



122 GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

5. — The Appositional Clause; as, " The proverb (that) 'Wealth 
begets want,' is not clear to all." 

6. — Th3 Adverbial Clause; as, "I waited until the hour had ex- 
pired." — " It lay where it fell." 

Adverbial clauses are usually connected to the parts which they 
qualify by conjunctive adverbs. 

When two clauses of a complex sentence mutually qualify, they 
may be called Correlative; as, " The more I struggled, the deeper 1 
sank." 

Clauses introduced by the conjunction than may be called Com- 
parative; as, "The loss was greater than he imagined it to be" 

Exeecise. — Classify the phrases and the clauses in the following sen- 
tences, and mention what they qualify : — 

Adrian built a wall from sea to sea, to restrain the incursions of the Picts 
and Scots. By private gratitude for public worth, this monument is raised. 
Woe to the city where faction reigns! The raven croaked as" he sat in the 
gloom of the deepening twilight. Regardless of their doom, the little vic- 
tims play. Everybody knows that authority is very much founded upon 
opinion. I wonder why he does not come. In ancient times the belief was 
that the earth is a flat circle. The time having arrived, the orders were 
carried into effect. As the day dawned, the horrors of their position 
became manifest. The duke gave command that no prisoners should be 
spared. Having lighted his lantern, he left the hut, the dog, by his bark- 
ing, directing the way. Almost at the end of the valley they found an 
humble inn. The chamber where the good man meets his fate is privi- 
leged beyond the common walk of virtuous life. How beautiful are the 
feet of him that bringeth good tidings, that publisheth peace ! The fact that 
a robbery had been committed in spite of all precautions dismayed every one. 



GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

DIRECTIONS. L— 1.— Read aloud the sentence. 

2. — Mention the class to which it belongs according to use and 
form; 

3. — Its clauses, independent and dependent, if the sentence be 
complex; or its members, leading, second, etc. (and secondary), if 
compound ; 

4. — All the connecting parts. 

II. When it is a simple sentence, — . 

1. — Mention the subject, that is, the whole subject, without regard 



MODELS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 123 

to the distinctions as simple, complex, or compound; and th6 pre- 
dicate, that is, the whole predicate, etc. 

2. — Mention the distinction of the subject; that is, whether it is 
simple, complex, or compound; and when it is complex, name, first, 
the subject -nominative, then its qualifications, and lastly, the 
qualifications or adjuncts of the qualifying words. 

3. — Name the distinction of the predicate, and proceed in the 
same manner as with the subject, mentioning, first, the predicate- 
verb, etc. 

4. — Mention the independent parts, the principal or leading 
words (especially the addressive), the qualifications, and the con- 
nectives. 

When the subject or the predicate is compound, or when both are 
compound, separate it or them into the simple or the complex, and 
with each proceed as before directed. 

III. When the sentence is complex, analyze, first, the inde- 
pendent clause, and then the dependent clause or clauses. 

IV. When the sentence is compound, begin with the leading 
member, and proceed as in Direction II. 

V. When the words composing simple sentences, clauses, or 
members, are inverted, it is better, before analyzing, to arrange 
the words in their natural order. 

VI. Repeat, at least once during a recitation, the definition of 
every term used in analyzing, or give a reason for the use of the 
term. 

MODELS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 1.— " Honesty produces confidence." 

This is a sentence; "A Sentence is, etc."; declarative, because it is used, 
etc.; simple, because it contains, etc. Honesty is the subject, because it is 
that of which, etc.; produces confidence is the predicate, because it is that 
which is asserted, etc. 

The subject is simple, and is also the subject-nominative. 

The predicate is complex; produces is the predicate-verb, and is qualified 
by its object — confidence. 

2.—" To steal is base." 

This is a sentence, declarative, simple. To steal is the subject, and is base 
is the predicate. 

The subject is simple, and to steal, a verb in the inficitivc mode, is used as 
the subject-nominative. 



124 MODELS FOR THF ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

The predicate is complex; is is the predicate-verb ; it is qualified by the 
adjective base, which describes the words used as the subject-nominative. 

3. — " The purest ore is produced from the hottest furnace." 

This is a sentence, simple, declarative. 

The purest ore is the subject; is produced from the hottest fur nace is the 
predicate. 

The subject is complex; the subject nominative is ore, which is qualified 
by the article the, and by the adjective purest. 

The predicate is complex; the predicate-verb is is produced, which is 
qualified by the prepositional phrase, from the hottest furnace; in this 
phrase, the noun furnace is qualified by its adjuncts the and hottest. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. 1.— "The evil that men do, lives after them." 

This is a sentence; "A Sentence is, etc."; declarative, because it is used to 
affirm something; complex, because it contains, etc. 

The independent or principal clause is, The evil lives after them; the 
dependent or qualifying clause is, that men do; the clauses are connected by 
the relative that. 

In the independent clause, the evil is the subject, and lives after them is the 
predicate. The subject is complex; the subject-nominative is evil, which is 
qualified by the article the, and by the dependent clause, that men do. 

The predicate is complex ; the predicate- verb is lives, which is qualified by 
the adjunct after them. 

In the dependent clause, men is the subject, and do that is the predicate. 
The subject is simple, and is also the subject- nominative. The predicate is 
complex; do is the predicate-verb, which is qualified by its object, the rela- 
tive that. 

2. — " That crime deserves punishment needs only to be asserted, in order t9 
be admitted." 

This is a sentence, declarative, complex. 

The dependent clause, That crime deserves punishment, is used as the subject 
of the independent clause, needs only to be asserted, etc., which constitutes the. 
predicate. The connective is the conjunction that. 

In the independent clause, the predicate is complex; needs is the predicate- 
verb, and is qualified by the infinitive to be asserted, which is itself qualified 
by the adverb only, and by the prepositional phrase, in orde* «o be admitted. 1 * 
In this phrase, in order is qualified by the infinitive to be admitted. 

In the dependent clause, crime is the subject, and deserves punishment is the 
predicate. 

The subject U simple, and is also the subject-nominative. 



MODELS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 125 

The predicate is complex; the predicate-verb is deserves, which is qualified 
by its object punishment. 

3. — " Whatever he undertook, prospered." 

This is a sentence, declarative, complex, in which tho compound relative 
whatever is equivalent to evert/ thing which. 

The independent clause is, every thing (included in whatever) prospered; 
the dependent clause is, which (included in whatever) he undertook; the con- 
nective is the compound relative whatever. 

In the independent clause, every thing is tho subject, and prospered is the 
predicate; the subject is complex; thing is the subject-nominative, which is 
qualified by the adjective evert/. The predicate is simple, and is also the pre- 
dicate-verb. 

In the dependent clause, he is the subject; undertook ichich is the predicate. 
The subject is simple, and is also the subject-nominative; the predicate is 
complex; the predicate-verb is undertook, and is qualified by its object which. 

4. — u If we examine with minuteness the falling snow, we will observe, 
if the air be very cnlm, that each flake consists of a number of exceedingly 
delicate particles of ice, which are united together with wonderful regularity." 

This is a sentence, declarative, complex, consisting of five propositions or 
clauses. 

I. The principal clause is, We will observe. 

II. This is qualified by the dependent clause, if we examine with minute- 
ness the falling snow. They are connected by the conjunction if. 

III. The principal clause is also qualified by the dependent clause, if the 
air be very calm; these are connected by another conjunction, if. 

IV. The principal clause i-= also qualified by (or introduces) the dependent 
•clause, that each /lake consists of a number of exceeding!;/ delicate particle* 

. which is used as the object of the predicate-verb will observe. They 
are connected by the conjunction that. 

V. The last mentioned dependent clause is itself qualified, or has one of 
the words in it, ice, qualified by the dependent (adjective) clause, which are 

ther with wonderful regularity. 
Each of these clauses may be analyzed according to preceding models* 

IMPOUND SENTENCES. 1.— "Art is founded upon science; and the 
on in a rude state, without the latter.'' 
This is a Bentence, decla mpound. 

The first member is, Art is founded upo f hp second is, the former 

mnnoi * in a rude state, without the latter. They are ccnnccted by 

Yhe conjunction and. 

11 



126 GENERAL EXEBCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

In the first member, art is the object ; is founded upon science is the predicate. 
The subject is simple, and is also tV^ subject-nominative; the predicate is com* 
plex; the predicate-verb is is founder, which is qualified by the adjunct upon 
science. 

In the second member, the subject is the former; the predicate is, cannot 
exist, even in a rude state, without the latter. 

The subject is complex; the subject-nominative is former (representing 
art), which is qualified by the article the. 

The predicate is complex; the predicate-verb is can exist, which is quali- 
fied by the adverb not, by the adjunct without the latter, in which the is the 
qualifier of latter (representing science), and by the adverbial phrase, even in 
a rude state, which consists of the adverb even and its qualifying adjunct in 
a rude state. In this adjunct a and rude are the qualifications of state. 

2. — " Decision and obstinacy often resemble each other, though one is the 
child of wisdom, the other of error; a decided man thinks deeply, an obsti- 
nate one seldom thinks at all." 

This is a sentence, declarative, compound, consisting of two members. 

The first member is, Decision and obstinacy often resemble each other, though 
one is the child of wisdom, the other of error. It is complex, consisting of the 
independent clause, Decision and obstinacy resemble each other, qualified by two 
dependent clauses, — namely, though one is the child of wisdom, and {though) the 
other [is the child) of error. These are connected with the independent clause 
by the conjunction though, and with each other by the conjunction and (not 
mentioned). 

The subject of the independent clause is compound, consisting of the tw< 
simple subjects, decision and obstinacy, connected by and. 

The second member is, a decided man thinks deeply, an obstinate one seldo: 
thinks at all. It is compound, consisting of the two propositions (or secondar; 
members), a decided man thinks deeply, and an obstinate one seldom thinks a 
a ll f — which are connected by the conjunction (but or and) not mentioned. 

Each member and its propositions may be analyzed as before. 

GENERAL EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

The rounded hills slope gently to the sea. Attention to business will pro 
vide security against want. To instruct others is beneficial to the mind 
The villagers were all poor. Adams and Jefferson died on the same day, th< 
fourth of July, 1826. Oh! what riches Love doth inherit! Thompson ana 
I. had a fortnight's holiday. Follow whither virtue leads thee. Oh! wre\ct| 
that I am ! to what place shall I betake myself? Early in the morning I 
visited my traps. The wind and the rain have ceased. One deed of sham 



GENERAL EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 127 

is often succeeded by years of penitence. Times of general calamity have 
ever been productive of the greatest minds. 

What a piece of work is man! Rome, republican Rome, whoso eagles 
glanced in the rising and the setting sun, — where and what is sho? The 
darkness increasing, we beheld sparkles of sea-iiro glittering through tho 
gloom. Beautiful, there, was every season with its changes. There is a 
divinity that shapes our ends. My involuntary dread of thunder had its 
origin in an incident which occurred when I was a boy of ten years. 
Strange, that after a lapse of many years that occurrence should bo so 
familiar to me. 

The characteristic peculiarity of the "Pilgrim's Progress" is, that it is the 
only work of its kind which possesses a strong human interest. Oh my 
lord! must I then leave you? Earnestness, self-sacrifice, endurance, and 
benevolence, quicken and ennoble life. Daniel Boone, the pioneer of Ken- 
tucky, was boru in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in the month of February, 
1735. The stranger asked what building was burned last night. 

Christianity is the best foundation for good manners; and of two persons 
having equal knowledge of the world, the one who is the better Christian will 
be the person of the best manners. Hail ! thou inexhaustible source of 
wonder and emotion ! how glorious, how awful, how beautiful, are the scenes 
which thou displayest ! No bridges were made over any of the streams; 
th< re were no roads, nor any houses except Indian wigwams. I have but 
one lamp by which my feet are guided, and that is the lamp of experience. 
Jn Ige not, and ye .^hall not be judged. Tho better and more nutritious the 

diet, the better the health. __ 

: 

Those evening bells ! those evening bells ! 
How many a tale their music tells ! 

The angel's face, 
As the great eye of heaven, shined bright, 
And made a sunshine in the shady place. 

By D, ail that is, subsists. The simplicity of his character 

the ardor of his eloquence roused enthusin.-m, and the 

gentlenes3 of his manners invited friendship. I go to hear Rowland Hill 

the heart. 

While tl. - rising to confront the king, the North was all in a 

•flame behind hi "S should be obeyed 

till tl ■ and thai nil persona who 

held office without legal qualifications should be forthwith dismissed. The 

* deliberations of the parliament, he justly conceived, could not be freo if it 



128 GENEKAL EXEECISES IN ANALYSIS. 

must sit surrounded by Irish regiments, while he and his army lay at a 
distance of several marches. He therefore thought it reasonable that, since 
his troops were not to advance within forty miles of London on the west, the 
king's troops should fall back as far to the east. There would thus be 
round the spot where the Houses were to meet a wide circle of neutral 
ground. 

No man contemplates with greater tenderness than we do the frailties of 
Dr. Johnson ; none respects more the sound parts of his moral system, or 
admires more the vigor of the elephantine step with which he sometimes 
tramples down insolent error and presumptuous sophistry ; but let no young 
man who wishes to learn to write well, study his style. 

Let the young aspirant after literary distinction who wishes to study a 
Style which possesses the characteristic beauties of Addison's, its ease, sim- 
plicity, and elegance, with greater accuracy, point, and spirit, give his days 
and nights to the volumes of Irving. 

How sleep the brave who sink to rest, 
By all their country's wishes blest ! 
"When Spring, with dewy fingers cold, 
Returns to deck their hallowed mould, 
She there shall dress a sweeter sod 
Than Fancy's feet have ever trod. 

By fairy hands their knell is rung; 
By forms unseen their dirge is sung; 
There Honor comes, a pilgrim gray, 
To bless the turf that wraps their clay; 
And Freedom shall awhile repair, 
To dwell a weeping hermit there. 

So live, that, when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan, that moves 
To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take 
His chamber in the silent halls of death, t _ 
Thou go not, like the quarry-slave at night, 
Scourged to his dungeon; but, sustained and soothed 
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave, 
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. 



SYNTHESIS. 129 



SYNTHESIS. 



Synthesis is that division of Syntax which treats of the 
struction of sentences from words, according to prin- 
ciples called Rules of Syntax. 

In Syntax, words relate to others, show relation between words, 
rn, connect, depend, or arc independent. 

1. A word relates to another, when it is used to describe that 
word, or to limit or qualify its meaning. 

Articles, adjectives, pronominal adjectives, and participles, relate 
principally to nouns or pronouns ; and adverbs, to verbs, adjectives, 
or adverbs. 

2. A word shows relation, when it associates with some preceding 
word the idea expressed by the word which follows it. 

Prepositions show the relation between nouns and pronouns princi- 
pally and some preceding word. 

A word agrees with another, when the two words are similar 
or more properties common to both. 

1 and relative pronouns, and verbs, agree principally with 
pronouns. 
4. A word governs another, when the former determines the form 
of the latter. 
rbs, participles, and prepositions, govern other words, princi- 
ouns. 

is, when it unites words in the same construction, 
'^n it unite- parts of a sentence, or sentences. 
stive adverbs connect. 
ids upon another, when the former is used to com- 
or application of the latter. 

(erbs in the infinitive mode depend upon other word-, principally 
a verbs. r nouns. 

A word i lent, when it has no grammatical connection 

i any other word. 
iter; ertain adverbs, and sometimes other parts of speech, 

re independent. 



I 



130 RULES OF SYNTAX. 



EULES OP SYNTAX. 

I. Subject of Finite Verb. — A noun or a pronoun 
which is the subject of a finite verb, is in the nominative 
case. 

II. Nominative Case Independent. — A noun or a 
pronoun whose case does not depend upon its connection 
with any other word, is in the nominative case inde- 
pendent. 

III. Possessive Case. — A noun or a pronoun in the 
possessive case limits the word used as the name of the 
thing possessed. 

IV. Objective Case. — A noun or a pronoun which 
is the object of an action or of a relation, is in the objective 
case. 

V. Apposition. — A noun or a pronoun put in apposi- 
tion with another is in the same case. 

VI. Same Case after Verb. — A noun or a pro- 
noun placed after an intransitive verb, or a verb in the 
passive voice, is in the same case as the noun or the pro- 
noun preceding the verb and meaning the same person or 
thing. 

VII. Personal Pronouns. — A personal prono 
agrees with the noun which it represents, in number, per- 
son, and gender. 

VIII. Relative Pronouns. — A relative pronoun 
agrees with its antecedent in number, person, and gender. | 

IX. Articles. — An article relates to the noun which 
it limits in meaning. '! 

X. Adjectives. — An adjective relates to the noun or 
the pronoun which it describes or limits. 

XI. Pronominal Adjectives. — A pronominal ad 
jective relates to the noun which it limits, — or agrees with 



KULE I. — SUBJECT OF FINITE VERB — NOIES. 131 

the noun which it represents, in number, person > and 
gender. 

XII. Agreement of Finite Verbs. — A finite ^erb 
agrees with its subject in number and person. 

XIII. Infinitives. — A verb in the infinitive mode 
depends upon the word which it limits or completes in 
meaning. 

XXV. Participles. — A participle relates to the noun 
or the pronoun which it describes or limits. 

XV. Adverbs. — An adverb relates to the verb, the 
adjective, or the other adverb, which it qualifies. 

XVI. Prepositions. — A preposition shows the re- 
lation between the noun or the pronoun which follows it 
and some preceding word. 

XA^II. Conjunctions. — A conjunction connects the 
words, the parts of a sentence, or the sentences, between 
which it is placed. 

XVIII. Interjections. — An interjection has no 
grammatical dependence upon any other word. 

BULB I. — SUBJECT OF FINITE VERB. 

A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite 
verb, is in the nominative case. 

NOTES. 

!1. The subject of a verb may be a verb in the infinitive mode, 
a part of a sentence, a sentence, or any word, used as a noun in the 
nominative ease; as, " To sleep is refreshing/' — "That the earth is 
as denied by the ancients/ 7 — " Them is often incorrectly 
I fur those." — " i Never despair,' ia ■ good motto/ 1 
2. Several nouns, pronouns, infinitives, phrases, or clauses, may be 
subjects of the same verb; as, " Wealth, fane, and happiness, were 
his." — "T<> walk humbly, to deal justly, jinc to show mercy, are re- 
quired of all." r 



132 KULE I. — EXERCISES. 

3. Nouns in the first, or in the second person, are never the 
subjects of finite verbs. (Rule V., Note 1.) 

4. A noun and the pronoun representing it are sometimes im- 
properly used as subjects of the same verb; as, "The sky it was 
obscured with clouds ;" — omit it, and say, "The sky was ob- 
scured, etc." 

5. Every nominative, except when used independently (Rule 2), 
or after the verb (Rule 6), or in apposition (Rule 5), is the subject 
of some verb mentioned or Rnderstood. 

6. The subject is generally placed before the verb; as, " They 
never fail who die in a good cause." 

The following instances are exceptions : — 

I. When a question is asked, without the use of an interrogative 
as the subject; as, "Where is he, about whom you spoke?" 

II. When a verb in the imperative mode is used; as, "Depart 
(thou) in peace." 

III. When a verb in the subjunctive mode is used without a 
conjunction mentioned; as, " Were wisdom to be had for the wishing, 
all would be wise." 

IV. When a verb in the potential mode is used to express an 
earnest wish; as, "May peace and plenty abound within our borders." 

V. When the adverb there is used before the verb; as, " There is 
one thing that happeneth to all men." 

VI. When emphasis is used ; as, On rolled the tide of war." 

VII. When words quoted are introduced or separated by the 
verbs say, answer, reply, etc. ; as, " ' Truth/ said the soothsayer, ' can 
neither be bought nor sold.'" 

VIII. In poetry; as, " From crag to crag leaps the thunder." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — "Him who expects to succeed in life, must be industrious." 
This sentence is incorrect, because him, which is a pronoun in the objective 
case, is used as the subject of the finite verb must be; but, according to 
Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, etc." 
Therefore him, should be he, and the sentence should be, "He who expects to 
succeed in life must be industrious." 

2. — " The moon it shed its pale beams o'er the landscape." 
This sentence is incorrect, because moon and the pronoun it, which repre- 
sents it, are used as subjects of the same verb; but, according to Note under 



RULE I. — EXERCISES. 133 

Rule I.. "A noun and the pronoun, etc." Therefore it shorn i be omitted, and 
mtence should be, "The moon shed her pale beams o'er the landscape.' 1 
L Him who was once so cheerful is now quite depressed. 2. Happy i.s 

him alone who depends not upon the pleasures of this world for his enjoy- 
ment. 3. Our teachers said that she and mc were seldom disobedient. 4. 

:i do you think did the mischief? Him, certainly. 5. Them, and them 
only who are virtuous, can deserve respect. 6. The boat was pushed ofi from 

rink, and him and his dog were left alone in the forest. 7. How 

much older arc you than us? S. When the ship struck, us sailors took to 

the long-boat, and the vessel began to fill immediately. 9. I love them that 

love me. and them that seek me early shall find me. 10. " Point out tho 

raid the judge, "whom you say committed the robbery." 

11. Who wishes to merit the praise of his teacher? Me. 12. Justice it is 

1 as being blind. 13. Him and his friend were almost inseparable. 

14. Whom dost thee regard most blamable, him or his brother? 15. The 

man he was disliked by his companions. 16. Dishonesty however well it 

may prosper for a time, yet justice will finally prevail. 17. I can not endure 

as much as thee. IS. Alexander, whom by his genius had conquered nearly 

all the whole world, he wept because there were no other worlds to conquer. 

19. This is the hoy whom we think deserved the reward. 20. Death it must 

Oome to the rich and to the poor. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the subjects in the following sentences : — 
Model 1. — "Huge icebergs surrounded the vessel." 

frergs. — Icebergs surrounded. — "Icebergs" is a common noun, in the 
plural number, third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the nomi- 
native case, being the subject of the finite verb surrounded, according to 
[., " A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, is in the 
nominative case." 

2. — "To study is not always pleasant." 

. — To study if. — "To study" i3 an intransitive verb, regular (pre*. 

: — in th<- infinitive mode, present tense j 

is a noun in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter 

rj — in the nominative case, being the subject of the finite vcb is, ac- 

Note under Rule I.. " The subject of B verb may be, etc' 

1. Old men go I • Death, but Death comes to young men. 2. Politeness 

now our ignorance ia the height of 
m. 4. M iny I tause their are little. 

0. Thus 
passed from its tenement of clay, a soul fitted for the company of angela 

12 



134 KULE II. — NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. 

7. The horse mocketh at fear and is not affrighted. 8. Will industry always 
bring its reward? 9. The great ones of the earth might learn many a lesson 
from the little. 10. "While there is life there is hope," cried he. 

11. Virtue is better than vice; for virtue leads, and vice misleads us. 12. 
The works of nature and of art should be carefully considered by us. 13. To 
be earnest in the performance of our duties, promises the best assurance of 
success. 14. The trials of life should be borne by us with patience. 15. 
Goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life. 16. The stream 
flows swiftly, and the tiny boat is borne along on the rippling waters. 17. 
That friendship is a sacred trust, can not be doubted. 18. " I will try" rides 
in his coach, while "I can not" walks, clothed in rags. 19. That life is long 
which answers life's great end. 20. Look not upon the wine when it is red. 

RULE II. — NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. 

A noun or a pronoun whose case does not depend upon 
its connection with any other word, is in the nominative 
case independent. 

NOTES. 

1. A noun or a pronoun may be in the nominative case inde- 
pendent under five circumstances ;— 

I. When it represents a person or a thing addressed; as, "My 
son, attend unto my words." — "0 Death, where is thy sting? 
Grave, where is thy victory ?" 

This is called the nominative independent by address. 

II. When it is used in exclamation; as, "Oh! the happy days 
of childhood !" — "Home! how sweet the sound !" 

This is called the nominative independent by exclamation, 

III. When it follows the infinitive mode or the participle of an 
intransitive verb, or the infinitive mode or the participle of a verb in 
the passive voice; as, "To be a good man is not easy." — "To be called 
a Christian was in former times considered a disgrace." — " His being 
called a villain did not make him one." 

In such instances the infinitive or the participle is used as a noun. 
This is called the nominative independent after the infinitive or the 
participle. 

IV. When by pleonasm it is mentioned to introduce a thought, 
and the pronoun representing it is the subject of the verb; as, "He 
that hath ears to hear, let him hear." — "The storm has spent its 
rage, but that gallant bark— where is she?" 

This is called the nominative independent by pleonasm. 



RULE II. — EXERCISES. 135 

V. When it is placed before a participle relating to it; as, "This 
jrmy being defeated, all hostilities ceased." 

- is called the nominative independent before a part triple. 

2. The nominative independent and its participle arc equivalent 
in meaning to a clause beginning with when, while, since, etc., in 
which the participle is changed into a finite verb, and the noun or 
the pronoun becomes its subject: thus, "All the members having 
arrived, business was commenced/' means, " When all the members 
Jkad arrived, etc." 

3. The noun or the pronoun which is used independently before a 
participle is sometimes omitted; as, "Considering the difficulties, it 

irprising that they succeeded;" that is, "/, ice, or persons con- 
ing, etc." 

4. The participle in independent constructions is frequently 
omitted; as, "Their work over, the party retired;" that is, "Their 
work being over, etc." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

M o d e L 1. — " Thoe, who art with glory and majesty crowned !" 
This sentence is incorrect, because Thee, which is a pronoun in the objective 
is used to represent the name of a person addressed; but, according to 
Note under Rule II., A noun or a pronoun used to represent a person or 
a thjng a d 3 in the nominative case independent. Therefore Thee 

should be Thou, and the sentence should be, " Thou, who art with glory 
and majesty crowned!" 

2. — u Him having overthrown the enemies of his country, peace waa 

1." 
This sentence is incorrect, because him, which is a pronoun in the objectivo 
IS QBed independently before the participle having overthrown ; but, ac- 
cording to Note under Rule II., A noun or a pronoun placed before a par- 
te in the nominative ease independent. Therefore him 
1 be he, and the sentence should be, "He having overthrown the ene- 
mies of hi- country, peace irai restored." 

1. happy them who had such blessings bestowed upon them ! 2. Him, 
whom all respected, I emitted th< iras felt. 3. <) 

miserable him, v. the precious years of manhood ! 1. 

ilitn fa his mind bj study, are not his pleasures increased? 5. 

There was no on*- to snrronnd him with good influences, her heing dead. 
6. Thee alone remaining of all who then met, the uncertainty of life is 



136 KULE II. — EXERCISES. 

shown. 7. Your refusing to grant my desires, I will withdraw my claim. 
8. Them alone excepted, the Jews were the most learned of the ansients. 

9. Our yielding to the difficulties, nothing was accomplished. 10. Her 
being unjustly reproved, I could not hold my peace. 11. Oh! thee who by 
thy friendship hast contributed to my happiness, art thou to be lost to me? 

12. And them, are not all of them to be rewarded for their long- suffering ? 

13. Whom having prepared their fleets, all sails were set. 14. Them bearing 
patiently the wrongs heaped upon them, the greater were their burdens made. 
15. Their being but a small body, only contempt was felt for the cause. 

Exercise II. — Parse the words used independently in the following 
sentences : — 

Model 1. — " Begone dull care, thou and I can never agree." 
Care. — " Care" has no grammatical connection. " Care" is a common 
noun, in the singular number, second person, and of the neuter gender; it is 
in the nominative case independent by address, according to Rule II., "A 
noun or a pronoun, etc." 

2. — " The Gauls being conquered, Caesar returned in triumph to Rome." 
Gauls. — "Gauls" has no grammatical connection. "Gauls" is a proper 
noun, in the plural number, third person, and of the masculine gender; it is 
in the nominative case independent before the participle being conquered, 
according to Rule II., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

3. — " To become an independent nation cost the colonists a long and bloody 
war." 

Nation. — "Nation" has no grammatical connection. " Nation" is a col- 
lective noun, in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender; 
it is in the nominative case independent after the infinitive to become^ accord- 
ing to Rule II., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

I. Darest thou, Cassius, now leap with me into this angry flood ? 2. 
liberty! liberty! how many crimes are committed in thy name! 3. To 
become a painter was the height of his ambition. 4. The sun shining from 
an unclouded sky, all nature was clothed in beauty. 5. Delightful task! to 
rear the tender thought. 6. Angels and ministers of grace, defend us! V. 
Beautiful Venice! pride of the sea! 8. The brave commander of the expe- 
dition being killed, the fleet was obliged to surrender. 9. Romans, country- 
men, and lovers ! hear me for my cause. 10. Go, soul, the body's guest, upon 
a thankless errand. 

II. Those evening bells! how many a tale their music tells. 12. Tell 
me, my soul, can this be death? 13. Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort 
me. 14. Man being born in sorrow, his days are spent in misery. 15. I 
came not, friends, to steal away your hearts. 16. Fair Greece! sad relic 



RULE III. — POSSESSIVE CASE — NOTES. 137 

of departed worth; though fallen, she is great. 17. Must I thus leave theo ; 
Paradise? 18. What! are you hurt, lieutenant? L9. To be a great man 
: in the power of all, but to be a good man is possible. 20. And I have 
I thee, Ocean ! 

bosom, black as death ! 
limed soul : that struggling to be free, 
Art only more engaged. Etelp, Angels, make assay! 
Bow Btubbora knees! and heart with strings of steel, 
- sinews of the new-born babe. 

RULE III.— POSSESSIVE CASE. 

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case limits the 
word used as the name of the thing possessed. 

NOTES. 

1. In the use of nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, the 
r forms should always be written; as, The boy's hat; the 

•. — " This book was hers." 

A noun or a pronoun is usually placed immediately before the 

aoun denoting the thing possessed; except when an adjective which 

or limits the same noun is placed between the noun and 

; as, "The company's vessel was lost." — "The com- 

fany^s larges id was lost." 

3. The possessive and the word limited by it are sometimes con- 
nected by a hyphen and thus form a compound word ; as, A camel's- 
hair brush. 

»und word is sometimes formed from the possessive and 

limited by it. by omitting both the hyphen and the sign 

in, for g >afs skin. 

and the word limited by it, and the compounds 

1 from t 1 - have the Bame meaning: thus, cat- 

/(a plant), and a cat's head, ex| 

4. . ive may also be denoted bj 

1 by ?! > e: thus, " The sun's 

Those two modes of n, however, do not always mean 

same tiling: thus, " Tl ■ picture" means a picture be- 

\g to hci but, "A picture of the queen" means a portrait of 
12* 



138 BULB III. — NOTES. 

• her. "The lord's house" means the mansion or residence belonging 
to a lord; but "The House of Lords" means the legislative bodvl 
composed of lords. 

5. The word limited by the possessive may be omitted when its 
use is not required to complete the sense ; as, " He bought the goods 
at Stewart's (store) ." 

6. The noun omitted after the possessive following of is the same 
as the noun which precedes of and is always in the plural number ; 
as, "This is a painting of West's (paintings)." 

7. In the use of complex nouns the sign of the possessive is suf- 
fixed to the last word of the complex name; as, "Washington Irving- $ 
' Life of Columbus' should be in every library." 

When the last word of a complex name is in the objective case, 
it is preferable to express the idea of possession by means of a 
preposition and its object: thus, instead of "The Pope of Rome 1 s 
temporal power," say, " The temporal power of the Pope of Rome." 

8. The use of several successive nouns in the possessive case 
should be avoided, and the idea of possession expressed by pre- 
positions and their objects: thus, "The king's favorite's servant's: 
horse was slain," should be, " The horse belonging to the servant of j 
the king's favorite was slain." 

9. When two or more nouns in the possessive are connected, and j 
denote joint owners of the same thing, the sign of the possessive is 
suffixed to the lasf noun only; as, William and Mary's reign; Wil- \ 
Ham, John, and James's teacher. 

When one or more of the nouns connected in the possessive are j 
used for the sake of emphasis, the sign of the possessive is suf- 1 
fixed to each; as, "It was Charles's, not Mary's fault." — "Henry's, 
which was also partly Howard's book, was lost." 

When two or more nouns in the possessive are connected, and 
denote separate owners of different things, the sign of the possessive ! 
is suffixed to each noun; as, "Taylor's and Santa Anna's forces j 
were unequal in numbers." 

10. When a noun in the possessive has one or more nouns in ap- 
position (Rule V., Note 5) with it, the sign should be suffixed to that 
which immediately precedes the noun, mentioned or understood,! 
which is limited by the possessive; as, Paul the Apostle's letter: At 
Smith's the watchmaker and jeweler. 

11. When a clause is used to explain a noun in the possessive,'; 
the idea of possession should be denoted by a preposition and its ob- 
ject, whh the explanatory clause following: thus, " She praised the 



RULE in. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 139 

■. as he was called, £o< d breeding," should be, "She praised 
mt, as he was called." 

12. When a uouu in the p ssessive case is put in apposition with 

* pronoun in the - sign may be omitted; as, "Such 

his wisdom, the foremost man of all his age." — " His repute- 
as a lawgiver has descended even to our times." (Rule V., X. 6.) 

13. The ive may limit a participial noon; as, "The bead 
and front of my offending hath this extent." — "The boy's play iwa 
was admired by all." 

14. Sometimes the possessive is used to limit a participle which 
ins all the properties of a participle; as, "His having a ticket 

insured his immediate admission." 

E x B R C i s E I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note f< r each correction : — 

M del 1. — " ' Ladies Cabin' was painted above the door." 
This expression is incorrect, because ladies, which is intended for the pos- 
e plural, has not the proper form ; but, according to Note under Rule III., 

* In the use of nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, etc." There- 

ladies should be ladies', and the expression should be, "'Ladies' Cabin' 
was painted above the door." 

2. — " The thief restored neither Brown nor Smith's goods." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the sign of the possessive is not suffixed 
to the noun Brown, which is one of two nouns connected in the possessive; 
but. according to Note under Rule III., " When two or more nouns in the 
are connected, and denote separate owners of different things, 
etc." Therefore Brown should be Brown's, and the sentence should be, 
"The thief restored neither Brown's nor Smith's goods." 

1. \ II. Prescott's "Conquest of Peru" is a very interesting 

2. The fire destroyed Pierce's, Taylor's, and Clay's store. 3. The 
ne waa prii rpers', the publishers 1 and booksellers'. 4. Tcnny- 

ite of England, fame will live through coming ages. 5. 
. Napoleon and Wellington's armies deserved such commanders, 6. The 
the general, not the soldiers'. 7. The commodore's vessel's 
saasts were shot a" tor's picture was an exact resem- 

blance of his feature- - . 0. No means remained to prevent him 
110. Men and w hoes are ma le here, 

11. King James' trans!.'' ginning of the 

j seventeenth century. 12. The Declaration -was 

generally observed. 13. Them ie king, as well 

as the people's, approbation. 14. The Prince of Orange's, who is called " The 



140 EULE III. — EXERCISES. 

Silent," death was deeply lamented by his countrymen. 15. Waose cor. duct 
was most praiseworthy? — Charles. 16. The cat's head raised in the garden 
did not come to perfection. 17. The bonds were bought at Cooke the broker 
and banker's on Third Street. 18. The King of France's edict against the 
Catholics was revoked. 19. The Czar's, Peter the Great's, efforts to promote 
the welfare of his country were highly successful. 20. The Representatives 
house assembled on the first Monday in December. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the possessives in the following sentences : — 
Model 1. — " President Harrison's death occurred April 4, 1841." 
President Harrison's. — President Harrison's death. — President Harrison's 
is a complex proper noun, in the singular number, third person, and of the 
masculine gender; it is in the possessive case, and limits the noun death, 
according to Rule III., "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case limits 
the word used as the name of the thing possessed." 

2. — " ' The Deliverance of Leyden' is a painting of Wittkamp's." 
Wittkamp's. — Wittkamp's {paintings). — "Wittkamp's" is a proper noun, in 
the singular number, third person, and of the masculine gender; it is in 
the possessive case, and limits the noun 2oaintings, understood, according to 
R,ule III., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

I. Order is Heaven's first law. 2. One fire burns out another's burning. 
3. Queen Anne's reign has been called the Augustan age of English lite- 
rature. 4. The French emperor's well-known and often-tried powers of en- 
durance were astonishing. 5. Man's reasoning faculties are given to him 
for a noble purpose. 6. In our travels we stopped at Wordsworth's, the 
poet. 7. After life's fitful fever he sleeps well. 8. The Roundheads' and 
the Parliament's forces were soon engaged. 9. An atheist's laugh's a poor 
exchange for Deity offended. 10. The best portion of a good man's life 
is his little, unremembered acts of kindness and of love. 

II. Dr. Kane's Arctic explorations have added much to our knowledge 
of the Polar regions. 12. Captain Lawrence's "Don't give up the ship" has 
made his name immortal. 13. happiness! our being's end and aim. 
14. The tyrant's plea, necessity, governed the king in all his acts. 15. Long- 
fellow's "Evangeline" is considered his best work, as a poet. 16. The 
rulers' necessity is the people's opportunity. 17. New-made honor doth 
forget men's names. 18. This picture of Washington's was sold at an ex- 
orbitant price. 19. Ferdinand and Isabella's reign is regarded as the most 
^glorious in Spanish history. 20. Martin Luther the Reformer's life was 
beset with trials and dangers. 






BULE IV. — OBJECTIVE CASE — XOTES. 141 



RULE IV. — OBJECTIVE CASK. 

A noun cr a pronoun which is the object of^in action or 
of a relation, is in the objective case. 

n asserted by a verb, and relation to the 
relation denoted by a 

NOTES. 
1. A noun or a pronoun can be the object of an action expressed 
Only by a transitive verb in the active voice, or by an intransitive 
1 transitively: as, "Strive to perform your duties, and 
r friends will i u." — " The peasant lived a life of toil." 

A verb may have several objects connected by one or more con- 
junct!, n-: as, " He shall no more behold wife, friends, or children." 
V noun or a pronoun may also be the object of an action ex- 
Hiciple of a transitive verb in the active voice, or 
of an intransitive verb used transitively; as, " A lake was seen re- 
; the rays of the sun." 

3. The object of a verb or of a participle may be a phrase, a 
clause, or a sentence, — used as a noun; as, "The colonists deter- 

U the Stamp Act" — "Galileo proved that the earth is 
round" — "Take ' Touch not, taste not, handle not/ for your motto. " 

4. A preposition should never be placed between a verb and the 

;sed by the verb: thus, "The family did 
ippear to want far any thing," should be, "The family did not 
appear to want any thing." 

5. A verb in the passive voice should never be used to govern an 
objective ease, because the object of the action expressed by the 
verb is the subject of the verb: thus, "lie was offei y ed a foreign 

intment" should be, "A foreign appointment was offered to 
him." 

6. An intransitive verb, or the participle of an intransitive verb, 
should n :i the objective case: thus, "I will sit me 

I 1 be, '• I will sit down to rest" 

7. Trans g, naming, etc., seem to hav? two 

; as, " II" called his son 

In ; i in apposition with the n 

or the pronoun preceding, which is the real object. (Rule V., 
7.) 



142 RULE IV. — NOTES. 

The omission of a preposition, usually to, for, or of, gives a verb 
the appearance of governing two objectives: "He asked me a ques 
tion," means, "He asked of me a question/' — "I bought him a 
book," means, " I bought a book for him." 

When the object of the action expressed by the verb precedes the 
other object, the preposition is mentioned; as, "He taught the 
alphabet to him." 

A verb, therefore, never governs two objects, unless they are con- 
nected by a conjunction mentioned or understood. 

8. Some nouns seem to be used without any governing word: 
thus, "He traveled several miles before he overtook the party." 

In such instances the objective seems to have somewhat the force 
of an adverb ; but it is better to supply a preposition than to call 
the expression an adverb. 

9. A noun or a pronoun is sometimes the object of the relation 
denoted by two or more prepositions; or of a preposition and a 
transitive verb ; as, "He went into and passed through the house" 
— "The general proposed, and afterwards determined upon, his plans 
of operations." 

In all such expressions the object should be placed after the first 
verb or preposition, and each of the others should be followed by a 
pronoun representing the object; as, " He went into the house and 
passed through it." — " The general proposed his plans of operations, 
and afterwards determined upon them" 

10. The object of an action or of a relation is generally placed 
after the verb or the preposition by which it is governed; as, "I 
love to hear a hearty laugh above all other sounds;" — except when 
used for the sake of emphasis; as, "Him, whom I can not trust, I 
can not respect" 

11. The object should never be separated from the verb by an 
explanatory phrase or clause: thus, "He assisted, an act deserving 
much praise, the poor people who asked his aid," should be, "He 
assisted the poor people who asked his aid, an act, etc." 

12. When the object of an action is a relative or an interrogative, 
it may precede the verb, or both the verb and the subject; as, 
u Whom did the government appoint to the command ?" 

13. The relative that always precedes the verb or the preposition 
by which it is governed; as," He is the best man thatllmow" — 
"Who, that we can appeal to, will decide differently?" 

14. Wlum and which are sometimes placed before the preposition 
by which they are governed, — but inelegantly: tnus, " Whom did 






HULE IV. — EXERCISES. 143 



you speak to?" should be, "To whom did you speak?" They usually 
-le the verb; as, "The picture which I saw." 

E IERCI8 e I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or 
re for each correction : — 

■ D e L 1. — " They who become great through their own merit, tho world 
will commend." 

This sentence is incorrect, because tho pronoun they, which is in the 
nominative ease, is used as the object of the action expressed by commend, a 
transitive verb in the active voice; but, according to Rule IV., "A noun or 
a pronoun, etc." Therefore they should be them, and the sentence should 
be, " Them who become great through their own merits, the world will 
commend." 

2.—" He was offered a scat in the president's cabinet." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the noun seat is used as the object 
of teas offered, a verb in the passive voice; but, according to Note under 
Rule IV., " A verb in the passive voice should never be used, etc." Therefore 
the sentence should be, "A seat in the president's cabinet was offered to him." 

3._" Who did you ask for ?" 

This sentence is incorrect, because the relative who, which is in the nomi- 
native case, is used as the object of the relation denoted by the preposition 
for; but, according to Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun, etc."; therefore who 
should be whom. The sentence is also incorrect (or inelegant), because the 
preposition for is placed after the word which it governs; but by Note under 
Rule v IV., "The object of an action or of a relation is generally placed, etc." 
Therefore the sentence should be, "For whom did you ask?" 

I. Who did you accompany in your journey across the prairies? 2. He 
was presented the highest prize as a reward for his proficiency in Latin. 3. 

I The traveler being weary sat himself down by the road-side to rest. 4. The 
boy's parents resolved not to permit of such conduct. 5. It is our duty to 
feel for, and to assist, those in want. 6. Who did you desire to purchase tho 
book? he or I? 7. The Indians have been deprived of, and driven from, their 
former hunting-grounds. 8. Who, were I righteous, yet would I not answer. 
9. Thou, whom I am proud to include among my friends, I will always 
•t. 10. He to whom much is given, much will be required of. 

II. 1 r a grief but he that hath it 12. The mistress found 
it a difficult task to teach the alphabet her little pupil. 13. The gentleman 
who I was with i3 a book-keeper in Johnson, the jcwelor and watchmaker's. 
14. Him, having nothing to disturb his thoughts, read a poem of Tennyson, who 
all regard a3 a poet of the first order. 15. I fear me, thee wilt suffer much 



144 RULE IV. — EXERCISES. 

if thee pursuest thy present course. 16. He was not allowed the privilege 
to debate the question the second time. 17. The merchant, after a life of in- 
dustiy, can not retire himself at onee to a life devoid of employment. 18. 
Ho undertook, as every one should do, his task, with a determination to 
succeed. 19. He who can learn nothing from his own folly, we must surely 
pity. 20. Napoleon was an emperor, whom, if his ambition had not governed 
him, would have adorned the age which he lived in. 

Exercise II. — Parse the nouDS and the pronouns in the objective case 
in the following sentences: — 

Model 1. — " Cast thy bread upon the waters. " 

Bread. — Cast bread. — "Bread" is a common noun, in the singular number, 
third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the objective case, being tho 
object of the action expressed by the verb cast, according to Rule IV., "A 
noun or a pronoun, etc." 

Waters. — Upon waters. — "Waters" is a common noun, in the plural num- 
ber, third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the objective case, being 
the object of the relation denoted by the preposition upon, according to 
Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

I. Keep company with good men and you will increase the number. 2. As 
circumstances alter cases, so time and chance alter circumstances. 3. The 
pride of science is humble, when compared with the pride of ignorance. 4. 
The caravan traveled many miles without finding water. 5. Youth can be 
moulded into any shape, at pleasure, like soft clay. 6. A continual drop- 
ping of .water hollows out a stone. 7. Riches certainly make themselves 
wings. 8. The bell strikes one. We take no note of time but from its loss. 
9. Go to the ant, thou sluggard : consider her ways, and be wise. 10. Happy 
are we, if we make God's law the rule of our life. 

II. Quoth the raven, " Never more." 12. Go forth beneath the open skies 
and list to Nature's teachings. 13. One murder makes a villain; millions, a 
hero. 14. Out of thine own mouth will I judge thee. 15. Bring me the 
prisoner, and await my summons to re-appear. 16. The thing is right ac- 
cording to the laws of the Medes and Persians, which alter not. 17. The 
Roman Senate appointed Cincinnatus Dictator. 18. Immense blocks of 
marble, weighing several tons, were displaced. 19. The hunters encamped 
at night near the peaceful waters of the broad lake. 20. The price of the 
articles was increased many dollars by the war. 

"Anguish of mind has driven thousands to suicide; anguish of body, none. 
This proves that the health of the mind is of far more consequence to our 
happiness than the health of the body, although both are deserving of much 
more attention than either of them receives." 



RULE V. — APPOSITION — NOTES. 145 



HULE V. — APPOSITION. 

A noun or a pronoun put in apposition with another is 
in the same case. 

NOTES. 

1. A noun or a pronoun is ]>ut in apposition, when it is used 
with another noun or pronoun to explain it, or when it is added 
or repeated for the sake of emphasis; as, " Franklin, the philosopher, 
will ever be remembered." — " Spring, joyous spring, has come." — 

ph of the United States." 

2. The proper name and the common name of an object are often 

her, the common name being in apposition with the proper. 
may. however, be parsed together as a complex proper noun; 
*s, " The steamer Atlantic has arrived." — " The city of London is on 
the river Thames." 

Although one of the words forming a complex proper noun is the 

principal word, and the other or others are in apposition with it, 

yet they should be parsed together as one word: thus, in the 

sentence, " Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor in 1852," 

the principal noun, and Napoleon and Bonaparte are in 

rion with it, but all should be parsed as one word. 

title prefixed to a proper name is in apposition with it, but the 

two should be parsed together as one word: thus, in the sentence, 

wtor Webster opposed the measure," Senator is put in apposi- 

> ith Webster, but the two should be parsed as one word. 

3. A noun may sometimes be parsed as being in apposition with 
the whole or a part of a sentence; as, "The British Parliament 
claimed the right to tax the Americans without their consent, — a prin- 
ciple which the colonists opposed." 

4. As is often followed by a noun denoting office, employment, 
etc., which is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun; 

• Bonaparii 's abilities as a general, caused him to be feared by 
oemies." 
(The word following as is not always in apposition with the pre 
cedii m, but is Bometimes the subject, or the object, 

of a verb understood: thus, " He valued his character as his life," 
ilued his character as he valued his life" 
a in apposition ie an equivalent as well as an ex- 
aetimee introduced by the conjunction or; as. 
"The puma, or the American lion, is found in Brazil." 



146 RULE V. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 

5. When a noun in the possessive case is in apposition with 
another in the same case, the sign is usually suffixed only t( that 
noun which immediately precedes that limited by the possessive; 
as, " 'Death on the Pale Horse' is one of the best of the artist West's 
paintings." 

6. A noun may sometimes be in apposition with a pronoun in 
the possessive; in such instances the sign of the possessive is 
omitted; as, "Irving's ' Life of Washington' is his best work as 
an author" 

7. Transitive verbs of choosing, naming, etc., are sometimes fol- 
lowed in the active voice by two objectives, the first of which is the 
object of the action expressed by the verb, and the other is put in 
apposition with it; as, "The English government appointed Wel- 
lington commander of their forces in Spain." 

8. A plural term used for emphasis is sometimes put in apposition 
with the particulars which it represents; as, "Happiness, honor, 
wealth, all were lost." 

9. A distributive word, or several particulars, are sometimes used 
to explain a general term, and are put in apposition with it: thus, 
"They disputed every one with his neighbor." — "The inhabitants, 
men, women, and children, rallied to the defence of the city." 

10. In the expression, "They love each other," each is in appo- 
sition with they, the meaning being, " They, each, love the other." 

Also in the sentence, " They love one another," one is in apposi- 
tion with they, the meaning being, " They, one, love the other." 

11. Words in apposition must agree in case, but not necessarily 
in number, person, or gender; as, "We, the people of the United 
States." • 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1.— "The insult was offered to my friend, he whom I loved as a 
brother." 

This sentence is incorrect, because he, which is a pronoun in the nomi- 
native case, is put in apposition with the noun friend, which is in the 
objective case, being the object of the relation denoted by the preposition to ; 
but, according to Rule V., "A noun or a pronoun put in apposition with 
another is in the same case." Therefore he should be him, and the 
sentence should be, " The insult was offered to my friend, him whcm T 1c "ed 
as a brother." 

1. The purchased articles were left at Bailey's, the jeweler's. 2, My 



RULE V. — EXERCISES. 147 

friend, hiin who you heard lecture, has left (he city. o. Richard the Lion- 
hearted found the government of England in John's, his brother's, hauls. 
4. The man. him who the officer punished, threatened revenge, o. Suoh 

conduct to your friend, he who lias done so much lo aid you, is ungrate* 
ful. 6. Help the poor, disabled soldiers, they who so much need a 
uuce. 7. Milton the poet lived during Cromwell's the Protector's adminis- 
tration. S. The dress-maker, her whom you recommended, has disappointed 
me. 9. The minstrel came, him who the earl invited. 10. I went to sec my 
cousin Charles, he who has been sick so long. 

Exercise II. — Parse the nouns and the pronouns in apposition in the 
following sentences: — 

Model 1. — " Washington appointed John Jay Chief Justice." 
Chit ■ — John Jay Chief Justice. — "Chief Justice" is a complex 

proper noun, in the singular number, third person, and of the masculine gen- 
der; it is in the objective ease, being put in apposition with the noun John Jay 
which is the object of the action expressed by the verb appointed; according 
to Rule V., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

2. — " General, captain, private, all were hurried into the same grave " 
All. — Q< m al, captain, private, all. — "All" is a pronominal adjective, repre- 
senting the nouns, general, captain, and private, in the plural number, third 
n, and masculine gender; it is in the nominative case, being put in appo- 
sition with general, captain, and private, according to Note under Rule V., 
"A piural term used f>r emphasis is sometimes put in apposition with the 
particulars which it represents." 

I. How wonderful is Death! — Death and his brother Sleep. 2. When our 
actions do not. our fears make us traitors. 3. Shakspcare calls the world 
a stage, and men and women players. 4. The city, cannon, stores, every 
thing fell into the hands of the victorious army. 5. Athens, once the eye 
of Greece, mother of arts and eloquence, lay before us. 

6. The lah >rs of Hamilton as a itafc sman were invaluable. 7. Washington 

ned all the power which his position as commander-in-chief gave him. 

and retiied to private life; an act which will always be admired. 8. De 

catur 1 the frigate Philadelphia in the harbor of Tripoli. 0. Tins 

i! the blue, the fresh, the ever free! 10. The wal- 

r sea-horse, is found in the Arctic re 

II. Beautifnl bride of the sea. 12. Ye men of Israel, why 
marvel ye at this? L3. The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, 
the moss-covered backet, which hung in the well. 14. Aye, call it holy 
grouri!, — the place where the patriot falls. ].">. The troops seemed to vie 
with each other in the performance of their duties. 



148 RULE VI. — SAME CASE AFTER l^ERB — NCTES. 

16 Out of this nettle, danger, we pluck this flower, safety. 17. Hail Co- 
lumbia! happy land! Hail ye heroes! heaven-born band. 18. The little 
dogs and all, — Tray, Blanche, and Sweetheart, see they all bark at me. 19. 
Farewell, a word that hath been and must be. 

20. Caledonia! stern and wild, 
Meet nurse for a poetic child ! 
Land of brown heath and shaggy wood; 
Land of the mountain and the flood ! 

RULE VI. — SAME CASE AFTER VERB. 

A noun or a pronoun placed after an intransitive verb, 
or a verb in the passive voice, is in the same case as the 
noun or the pronoun preceding the verb and meaning the 
same person or thing. 

NOTES. 

1. A noun or a pronoun is after or before a verb or a participle 
when it follows or precedes the verb or the participle in the natural 
order of thought or expression. 

2. The verbs which most frequently separate nouns and pronouns 
meaning the same person or thing are be, become, appear, grow, etc.; 
intransitive verbs denoting motion, place, position, etc.; and the 
verbs call, clwose, consider, make, etc., in the passive voice. 

3. A noun or a pronoun may agree in case with a phrase, a 
clause, or a sentence, placed before the verb and meaning the same 
person or thing; as, "To love our neighbor as ourselves, is a divine 
command." 

The expression following the verb or the participle may be a 
phrase, a clause, or a sentence; as, "It is difficult to be always con- 
sistent" 

4. If the conjunction that is used to connect a finite intransitive 
verb with a transitive verb preceding, the noun or the pronoun fol- 
lowing the intransitive verb is in the nominative case ; as, " The 
man supposed (that) it was he who came last." 

When the intransitive verb is in the infinitive mode and follows 
a transitive verb which has an object mentioned, the noun or the pro- 
noun following the intransitive verb is in the objective case; as, "The 
man supposed it to be him who came last." 

5. The noun or the pronoun following an intransitive or a passive 
participle which is limited by the possessive case of a noun or a pro 



RULE VI. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 149 

noun placed before it, is in the nominative ease independent; as, 
p The (act of its being he, need not alter your opinion." 

Although this mode of expression is used by the best writers, it 
leems preferable to avoid it when possible: thus, "The fact that it 
need not alter your opinion." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or tho 

r each correction: — 
II o d k l 1. — u No one doubted that it was him who deserved the prize." 
This sentence is incorrect, because him is a personal pronoun in the 
objective case, referring to the same person as it, which is in the nominative 
being the subject of the verb was; but, according to Rule VI., "A 
noun or a pronoun placed after an intransitive verb, etc." Therefore him 
should be he. and the sentence should be, " No one doubted that it was he 
who deserved the prize." 

2. — "No one doubted it to be he who deserved the prize." 
This sentence is incorrect, because he is a personal pronoun in the nomi- 
native case, referring to the same person as if, which is in the objective case, 
being the object of the action denoted by the verb doubted; but, according to 
Rule VI., U A noun or a pronoun, etc." Therefore he should be him, and the 
sentence should be, "No one doubted it to be him who deserved the prize." 

1. It seemed impossible to be him who committed the act. 2. It appears 

difficult to determine whom it was, that first discovered the power of steam. 

3. Who do you suppose him to be? 4. If I were him or her, I would improve 

the opportunities presented to me. 5. It matters not whom your associates 

may be. their influence has its effect upon you. 6. The court had no doubt 

of its being them who were guilty. 7. The visitor was not the man whom 

to be. 8. The company could not believe it was him, who had so 

. been in such great danger. 9. We can no longer doubt its being 

John's who made the discovery. 10. It was him who issued the order, 

_-h the people for a long time disbelieved it to be ho. 

E XBRCI8 B 1 T. — Pant the nouns and the pronouns in the same case after 
' b in the following sentences :— 

- house is hia castle." 

•" is a common noun, in the singular 
q, and of the DOU t} H li UB the nominative 

a thing as the r>re- 

QominatiTe 0M6, e subject of the 

to Rule VI., "A noun or a pronoun p laced after an 

Intransitive verb, etc." 

13* 
I 



150 RULE VII. — PERSONAL PRONOUNS — NOTES. 

I. Beauty is truth, and truth beauty. 2. Every man is the architect 
of his own fortune. 3. From this battle the Romans retired victors. 4. 
He blesses his stars, and thinks it luxury. 5. Brevity is the soul of wit. 
6. Men are but children of a larger growth. 7. A sorrow's crown of sorrow, is 
remembering happier things. 8. To conceal art is the perfection of art. 9. 
Our birth is nothing but our death begun. 10. Prayer should be the key 
of the day and the lock of the night. 

II. Henry VII. was crowned King of England on the battle-field of Bos- 
worth. 12. The shortest answer is, doing a thing. 13. I am sure care's an 
enemy to life. 14. When I was a child, I spake as a child; but when I 
became a man, I put away childish things. 15. Miserable comforters are ye 
all. 16. Trifles, light as air, are, to the jealous, confirmations strong as proofs 
of holy writ. 17. Though this may be play to you, it is death to us. 18. 
Let it be deemed the highest honor to be called an American citizen. 19. 
Webster and Ashburton were appointed commissioners to settle the dis- 
puted boundary question. 

20. All nature is but art, unknown to thee; 

All chance, direction, which thou canst not see; 
All discord, harmony not understood; 
All partial evil, universal good. 

RULE VII. — PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

A personal pronoun agrees with the noun which it repre- 
sents, in number, person, and gender. 

NOTES, 
1. The following are exceptions : — 

I. We, which is a pronoun in the plural number, is sometimes 
used by authors, editors, reviewers, etc., to represent a noun in the 
singular. 

II. You, etc., which are in the plural number, are generally used 
instead of thou, etc., to represent nouns in the singular ; as, " Charles, 
have you completed your task ?" 

III. It, which is of the neuter gender, is often used instead of he 
or she to represent the names of infants, animals, etc.; as, "The 
child had not yet recovered from its fright." 

IV. He or she is used instead of it, to represent the name of a 
thing without sex, which has been personified; as, " Pleasure deludes 
her followers with many a flattering promise." 



RULE VII. — NOTES. 151 

2. When the objects composing the unit denoted by a collective 
lioun are considered collecti doud should be represented by a 
pronoun in the singular number, and of the neuter gender; as, " Con- 

holds its meetings in the capital of the United States." 
When the objects composing the unit denoted by a collective noun 
are considered separately, the noun should be represented by a 
pronoun in the plural number, and of the same gender as the indi- 
viduals that form the collection; as, "The party WQTQ quarreling 
g themselves at the time of their capture/' 
The collectives many, few. dozen, score, etc., preceded by a, are repre- 
sented by pronouns in the plural; as, "A great many lost their lives in 
mpts to capture the fort, but a few effected their entrance/' 

3. A pronoun which represents two or more nouns taken together 
and connected by and, should be in the plural number; as, " Gene- 
rals Worth and Twiggs united their armies to make the attack." 

Two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and aud ex- 
ssing only one person or thing, are represented by a pronoun in 
the singular: as, "The celebrated painter and artist died before he 
lied Rome." 
Two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and and pre- 
ceded by each, every, no, or a similar distributive, are considered 
Separately, and are represented by a pronoun in the singular; as, 
every word, every thought, has its effect upon our 
character." 

T\y<> nouns connected by as well as, but not, and also, etc. belong 

to different propositions, and a pronoun is used to represent the first 

, as well as his brothers, was there, for I saw 

4. A pronoun which represents two or more nouns in the singular 

. should be in the singular; as, "Either James 
or William has failed to do his duty." 

Wl : the nouns connected by or or nor is in the plural, the 

oun representing them should be plural; and the plural noun 
i the. pronoun; as, "Neither the captain 
danger/ 1 

5. A n gular preceded by many a is represented by 
a pronoun in Many a boy neglects his oppor- 
tunities for im] ..t." 

It may be re I by a pronoun in the plural, but not in the 

same clause, or m< Though many a warning was given, 

he disregarded them all.'' 



152 RULE VII. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 

6. In the singular number, second person, the singular or the 
plural form of the pronoun should be used throughout the sentence 
to represent the same person; as, "I can not forget that thou wast 
my friend, and I will not repay you [thee] with ingratitude." 

7. A pronoun in the plural representing two or more nouns or 
pronouns of different persons connected by and, is in the first person 
if one of the words which it represents is in the first person ; as, 
" He and I (we) are going to our homes." 

If none of the nouns is in the first person, the pronoun is in 
the second person, if one of the nouns which it represents is in the 
second person ; as, " You and he (you) failed in your efforts." 

8. A noun which is either masculine or feminine is usually repre- 
sented by a pronoun in the masculine; as, " A parent corrects the 
child whom he loves." 

9. Nouns in the singular number, but of different genders, con- 
nected by or or nor, can not be represented by a single pronoun; a 
separate pronoun must be used to represent each noun; as, "The boy 
or girl has lost his or her pen;" this is inelegant, and would be 
better thus: " The boy has lost his pen, or the girl has lost hers." 

10. The gender of a pronoun representing two or more nouns of 
different genders, connected by and, can not be determined; as, 
" The boy and the girl lost their way." 

11. The pronoun it is used to represent a noun or a pronoun in 
either number, in any person, or of any gender, — also a sentence or 
a part of a sentence; or it may be used indefinitely, that is, without 
representing any person or thing; as "It is men, not money, that we 
want." — "It was Queen Isabella who first aided Columbus." — "We 
are often mistaken, but we seldom acknowledge it." — "It snowed all 
day." — "They roughed it in the woods and led a jolly life." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " Congress passed the bill before they adjourned." 
This sentence is incorrect, because they, which is a pronoun in the plural 
number, is used to represent the collective noun Congress, which is used as 
the name of a number of objects considered collectively; but, according to 
Note under Rule VII., "When the objects composing a unit, etc." There- 
fore they should be it, and tne sentence should be, " Congress passed the 
bill before it adjourned." 

2. — " Every officer and every private endeavored to do their duty." 

This sentence is incorrect, because their, which is a pronoun in the plural 



RULE VII. EXERCISES. 153 

number, is used to represent the two mums officer and private, rhioh nro 
conneeted by and and are. preceded by every; but, according to Noto under 
Rule VII., "Two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and and pre- 
ceded by each, etc." Therefore their should be hie, and the sentence should 
be. "Every officer and ever}- private endeavored to do his duty." 

3. — u You and I must be obedient to your teachers." 

This sentence is incorrect, because your, which is a pronoun in the second 
person, is used to represent the pronoun I'm the first person, and you in the 
second person, connected by and ; but, according to Note under Rule VII.. 
"A pronoun in the plural representing two or more nouns or pronouns of 
different persons connected by and, is, etc." Therefore your should be our % 
and the sentence should be, "You and I must be obedient to our teachers." 

I. \l any one of you has found an error, let them mention it. 2. May youi 
life be always as free from care as it was in thy youth. 3. You and your 
friends cannot always have their wishes gratified. 4. A few of the leaders 
were arrested for his share in the plot. 5. Many an American is not aware 
of their advantages over the citizens of other countries. 6. The news came 
last evening, but no paper has yet published them. 7. If the officer or his 
secretary made the mistake, they should be severely censured. 8. Columbus, 

li as his brother, felt confident that they would succeed in his enterprise. 
\ hen we discover an error or a fault in our conduct, we should endeavor 
to oorrect them. 10. The course of the army led them through the best por- 
tion of the country. 

II. The jury could not agree in its opinions concerning the guilt of the 
ner. 12. Neither talent nor riches can alone give happiness to those who 

13. Canst thou deny the truth of the charge now brought against 

you? 14. James, you and I can be obedient to your teacher, even if you can 

not perform all of our duties. 15. Neither Nelson nor the officers under his 

emmand failed to do all in his power to defeat the enemy. 16. Every Sena- 

sentative receives a compensation for their services. 17. The 

great philosopher and an bequeathed their wealth to their son. 18. Tho 

' American army and the British encamped near each other in its winter 

quart*!-. 19. ittee, every member being present, differed in its 

opinion respecting the justice "f the proposed law. 20. Tho boy and his 

. the depths "f the forest* 21. Each of us has our special 

duties to perform. 

Exercise II. — Pane the perecnal pronount in the following sen- 

I : — 
Model 1. — a r l try to be OOnsfetent in all things?" 

Tkou. — (Per* Liou dost try. — " Thou" is a personal pro- 



154 KULE VIII. — RELATIVE PRONOUNS — NOTES. 

noun, in the singular number, second person, and of the masculine or the femi. 
nine gender, because the name of the person addressed is, with which it 
agrees, according to Rule VII., " A personal pronoun agrees, etc."; it is in the 
nominative case, being the subject of the finite verb dost try, according to 
Rule L, " A noun or a pronoun which is, etc." 

2. — "Few men are admired by their servants." 

Their. — Men their servants. — " Their" is a personal pronoun, in the plural 
number, third person, and of the masculine gender, because the noun men is, 
with which it agrees, according to Rule VII,, "A personal pronoun agrees, 
etc."; it is in the possessive case, and limits the noun servants, according to 
Rule III., "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, etc." 

I. Goldsmith was a poet, naturalist, and historian, who touched nothing 
that he did not adorn. 2. All men think all men mortal but themselves. 
3. But when thou doest alms, let not thy left hand know what thy right hand 
doeth. 4. The council disagreed in their opinions of the law proposed for the 
punishment of the Protestants. 5. The captain and the crew were exhausted 
by their continued efforts to keep the vessel in her direct course. 6. The 
troops took their appointed stations and patiently awaited the attack. 7. 
The army laid waste the country, and desolation marked its course. 8. And 
what is the worth of time? Ask death-beds; they can tell. 9. When Freedom 
from her mountain height unfurled her standard to the air. 10* The queen 
seated herself upon the throne which had been prepared for her. 

II. It is more blessed to give than to receive. 12. Boast not thyself of to- 
morrow ; for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth. 13. As the sun 
went down over the still lake, his last beams looked on a mournful spectacle. 
14. My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not. 15. No man knows 
anything of himself until he is tried, and then his virtues or his vices show 
themselves. 16. This is his work, the greatest sculptor of the age. 17. The 
embassy returned to the court, prepared to deliver its report on the condition 
of the country which it had visited. 18. Ah me! they little know how 
dearly I abide that boast so vain. 19. The English, as well as the French, 
suffered in consequence of their exposed condition before the besieged city. 

RULE VIII. — RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in num- 
ber, person, and gender. 

NOTES. 
1. Who is used when reference is made to persons, or to things 
which are personified; as, "Thou sun, who rulest the day!" — " He 
who knows every thing, is often deceived." 



RULE VIII. — NOTES. 155 

2. Which is used when reference is made to inferior animals, to 
infants, and to things without life; as, M Sweet are the songs of the 
birds which sing in the groves." — "The child which was lost, has 
beeu found." — ''Avoid avarice, which is a mean vice." 

W/tich is also used when the objects composing the unit denoted 
by a collective noun are referred to collectively; as, "The mob which 
tilled the streets, seemed bent on violence." 

3. Who, which, and what are sometimes used without referring to 
any antecedent; as, i( Who saw the accident? I can not tell who 
saw it." 

When so used they are either interrogative or indefinite relative 
pronouns (P. 40) ; and in parsing them as such, no rule of syntax 
is to be given except the rule for case. 

4. When a proper name of a person is used merely as a word, or 
to denote character, it is represented by which, and not by who ; as, 
"We should imitate the example set by Washington, which is a 
name dear to every American." 

. 5. The following are the principal instances in which that is used 
instead of who or which: — 

I. After an adjective or an adverb in the superlative degree; as, 
" He read the best books that could be procured." 

II. After the adjective same; as, "Others share the same diffi- 
culties in study that we encounter." 

III. After who used interrogatively; as, "Who, that indulges in 
vice, can be happy ?" 

IV. After two or more antecedents which separately require who 
and which : as, " No man or beast that ventured forth, escaped." 

V. After all, every, etc., and similar antecedents limited in mean- 
ing by the relative clause following; as, "All that heard him, were 

■ed." 

VI. After the personal pronoun it used indefinitely; as, "It was 
he that committed the fault." 

The rules which determine the number and the gender of the 
personal pronouns, apply also to the relative pronouns. (Rule VII., 

The gender of a relative pronoun having two or more antecedents 
of different genders connected by or or nor or by and, can not be de- 
termined : as, "I do not know the man or the woman who called." 

7. A relative having antecedents of different persons, agrees in 
u with the antecedent nearest to it; as, "You are a man who 
has great power." — " You, who are a man of great mind, are 
respected." 



156 KULE VIII. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 

8. Every relative should "be placed near its antecedent, in order to 
prevent all doubt as to the meaning intended: thus, "The general 
ordered his men to sleep on their arms, who knew the treachery 
of the enemy," should be, " The general who knew the treachery 
of the enemy, etc." 

9. A relative should not be used to represent an adjective or a 
verb: thus, " He resolved that he would be truthful, which is a trait 
all admire," should be, "He resolved, etc., for truthfulness is a 
trait, etc." 

10. The antecedent of a relative is sometimes omitted; as, "{He) 
Who commands himself, commands the whole world." 

11. The relative is sometimes improperly omitted; as, "The good 
[which) men do is often buried with them." 

12. What used as a relative, and the compound relatives, never 
have an antecedent mentioned, but, in meaning, each is equivalent 
to an antecedent and a relative. 

13. What is often incorrectly used for the conjunction that; as, 
w I do not know but what [that] there is truth in your statement." 

14. Whom and which shouJd generally follow the prepositions, but 
should precede the verbs, by which they are governed ;—that always 
precedes; as, "The difficulties with which"he contended." — "The 
same difficulties that you experienced, happened to me." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — "The horse, who is a noble animal, ranks next to man." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the relative who is used to agree with its 
antecedent the noun horse, which is the name of an animal inferior to man ; 
but, according to Note under Rule VIII., "Which is used when reference is 
made to inferior animals, etc." Therefore who should be which, and the sen- 
teuce should be, " The horse, which is a noble animal, ranks next to man." 

2. — " Newton was the greatest philosopher whom England ever produced." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the relative whom is used after greatest, 
which is an adjective in the superlative degree; but, according to Note under 
Rule VIII., "That is used instead of who or which after an adjective or an 
adverb in the superlative degree." Therefore whom should bo that, and the 
sentence should be, "Newton was the greatest philosopher that England 
ever produced." 

&. — " He can not associate with the virtuous who is vile." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the relative who is separated from its 
antecedent, the pronoun he, and thereby produces doubt as to the meaning 



RULE VIII. — EXERCISES. 157 

intended: but, according to Note under Rule VIIL, "T>vry relative should 
be placed, etc." Therefore who should be placed near its antecedent, the pro* 
noun he, and the sentence should be, "lie who is vile, can not associate with 
the virtuous." 

I. All which we hope for, is sometimes denied to us. 2. I do not know 
but what it is best that we are ignoraut of what is in store for us. 3. Even in 
the midst of the flames, the boy kept the position which his father had placed 
him in. 4. Even the little, man wants here below, is sometimes withheld. 
5. The king issued his edict against the Catholics, who was a Protestant. 6. All 
who perform their duties faithfully, gain the respect of their friends. 7. The 
army who was under the command of the Emperor, was successful in every 
battle. S. The companions whom he associated with, debased his mind, and 
corrupted his morals. 9. The traveler gave an amusing account of the per- 
sons and animals whom he had seen. 10. Neither wealth nor talent, who is 
so much envied, can alone bring happiness. 

II. The task was too difficult for the boy, which had been assigned to the 
. 12. The prisoner was one of the same party who was tried before for 

the same offence. 13. He could not recollect the page which the mistake was 
found on. 14. Washington appears to have had no fears but what the cause 
of the Americans would finajly triumph. 15. The army who was besieged, 
threw up entrenchments during the night, and was thereby saved from defeat. 
16. It could not have been him which the speaker intended to reprove. 17. 
The money they raised for the support of the poor, was never applied U 
Hum. 18. Stephen was very idle, which brought upon him many a reproof 
19. Who, who loves virtue, can practise falsehood? 20. Give sorrow words 
the grief who does not speak, breaks the heart. 

Exercise II. — Parse the relative 2 )ronoun8 m the following sen 
tences : — 

Model 1. — " Give me what this ribbon bound." 

lat — bound what. — "What" is a relative pronoun, and in 
meaning includes both relative and antecedent (thing whicl) ; it is in tha 
singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender, because its ante- 
cedei ; is, with which it agrees, according to Rule VIIL, "A 

relative pronoun, etc."; it is in the objective case, being the object of the 
action exp the verb gi ling to Rule IV.. "A noun or a pro- 

noun which is the object, etc." — ; il object of the action expr< - 

by the verb bon Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

2. — " The rro-n of William and Mary, who succeeded James II., was an 
^t*nt one in English history." 

14 



158 KULE VIII. — EXERCISES. 

Who. — William and Mary who succeeded. — "Who" is a relative pre noun, in 
the plural number, third person, according to Note under Rule VIII., "A 
pronoun having two or more antecedents connected by and, etc."; its gender 
can not be determined, because its antecedents conrected by and are of dif- 
ferent genders, according to Note under Rule VIII., " The gender of a pro- 
noun, having two or more antecedents, etc."; — it is in the nominative case, 
being the subject of the verb succeeded, according to Rule I., "A noun or a 
pronoun, etc." 

3. — " Whoever it was that committed the error, is deserving of reproof." 
Whoever. — Whoever is — it was whoever. — "Whoever" is a compound relative 
pronoun, in meaning equivalent to any one who; — it is in the singular num- 
ber, third person, and of the masculine or the feminine gender, because its 
antecedent (not mentioned) is, with which it agrees, according to Rule VIII. ; 
— "A relative pronoun agrees, etc."; it is in the nominative case, being the 
subject of the verb is, by Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun, etc."; — it is also in 
the nominative case after the verb was, because it denotes the same person as 
the pronoun it, which is in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb 
was ; according to Rule VI., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

I. Our gratitude is due to those who have endeavored to assist us in our 
efforts to acquire knowledge. 2. Whatever will tend to enlarge our minds 
and to elevate our nature, should receive our attention. 3. That is not 
always right which at first seems right. 4. You, who are possessed of ad- 
vantages so superior to those of your associates, should be thankful. 5. All 
that are so disposed, can make their influence for good felt by those around 
them. 6. The general did what he could for the comfort of his men during 
their long march. 7. Not a habitation nor an inhabitant that lay in the 
route, was spared. 8. Whoever will, may drink from the fountain of know- 
ledge. 9. Who, that gazes upon the myriads of stars which sparkle in the 
vaults of heaven, can doubt the existence of a divine being? 10. Those 
powers of mind which one enjoys, another may want. 

II. Washington said : " I hope I shall always possess firmness and virtue 
enough to maintain what I consider the most enviable of all titles, the 
character of an ' honest man/ " 12. What dost thou see, lone watcher on 
the tower? 13. Labor is the price which is set upon every thing that is 
valuable. 14. Flowers have been called day-stars, that open their eyes to 
twinkle with the morn. 15. Oh! how wretched is that poor man who hangs 
on princes' favors! 16. He mourns the dead, who lives as they desire. 17. 
The strongest and the fiercest spirit that fought in heaven, now made fiercer 
by despair, stood up. 18. Be not prodigal of time : we know not what a day 
may bring forth. 19. Heaven were not heaven if we knew what it were. 



RULE IX. — ARTICLES — NOTES. 159 

20. It is not what people earn, but what they save, thit makes them rich; it 
la Dot what they read, but what they remember, that makes them learned; it 
not what they profess, but what they practice, that makes them good. 



RULE IX.— ARTICLES. 

An article relates to the noun which it limits in 



NOTES, 
1. Tlio can relate to a noun in either the singular or the plural 
number; as, The book; the multitudes ; the three vessels. 

A ov an can relate to a noun in the singular only, or to a collective 
noun: as. A book; a cold day; an excited multitude. 

'2. The is used before a noun in the singular number regarded as 
the name of a whole species, or class; as, " Thelionis called the king 
of beasts." — " T he palm-tree grows only in warm climates." 

The is used before each of several particulars included in a gene- 
ral term or class ; as, " Nouns have three genders ; the masculine, 
the feminine, and the neuter." 

3. The, placed before a proper noun, renders the proper noun 
common : as, " The Cicero of America." A or an thus placed may 
have the same effect ; as, " Every poet is not a Milton or a Byron." 

Except when the is used to show that a particular object is meant; 
as, " T Ic was lust at sea, and all on board perished." 

4.' The article should not be used before the names of virtues, 
■t trials, sciences, etc., or before common names applied in 
;ense to persons; as, " The study of mathematics is use- 
ful." — " Immense fields of coal were discovered." — " Man is guided 
by reason; the brute, by instinct." 

5. The article is omitted before the name of a species included in 

a class: thus, "The dog is a faithful kind of an animal" should 

is a faithful kind of animal" 

Th ild be omitted before titles or names used merely 

ich, or used simply aa words: thus, "The title of a duke was 

i! Wellington," should be, ''The title of duke, etc." — 

•• The Jews called their priests the Rabbis" should be, "The Jews 

The article never relates to norms limited by the pronominal 

. mucky n -. none, SL~*ne, this, 

these, tha., those, — or by pronouns in th 



160 RULE IX. — NOTES. 

7. The sometimes relates to an adjective used as a noun; as, "The 
poor ye have always with you/' 

The article in such constructions may also be parsed as relating 
to some noun understood after the adjective. 

8. When an article is used before the comparative or the super- 
lative degree of an adjective, it relates to a noun mentioned or under- 
stood after the adjective; as, "I said a better soldier, not a wiser 
(soldier)." — "Of friends prove to be the truest (friend)" 

The has the force of an adverb when used before an adverb in the 
comparative or the superlative degree; as, "The more intelligent we 
become, the less are we satisfied with our knowledge." 

9. A has sometimes the force of a preposition; as, " The machinery 
was set a going." 

10. An adjective expressing plurality is sometimes preceded by 
the indefinite article ; as, "A dozen birds were killed, but only a few 
of them could be found." 

In such instances the article relates to the adjective used as a 
noun, and the adjective limits the noun following; or, the expression 
including the article and the adjective may be parsed together as an 
adjective. The former mode of parsing is preferable. 

11. The article is used before few, little, and other adjectives ex- 
pressing a similar meaning, to imply some: thus, "A little allow- 
ance was made for his failure," implies that some allowance was 
made, etc. "The few who were present heard it," implies that some 
heard it. 

The article is omitted before few, little, etc., to imply none, or not 
many, or not much: thus, "Little allowance was made for his 
failure," implies that none, or not much allowance was made, etc. 
"Few heard .it," implies that none, or not many heard it. 

12. The article is used only with the first of several adjectives 
connected expressing different qualities, and relating to but one 
noun; as, "A red, white, and blue flag was hoisted"; — this means 
that one flag of these three colors was hoisted. 

When several adjectives connected relate to the same noun men- 
tioned or understood more than once, and meaning different persons 
Or things, the article should be used with each adjective: thus, "A 
red, a white, and a blue flag," means three flags of different colors. 
"A sweet and sour apple," should be, "a sweet and a sour apple." 

13. If a comparison is expressed between two nouns referring to 
the same person or thing, the article should be used before the first 
noun only; as, "He is a better politician than lawyer." In this 
sentence different qualifications of one person are compared. 



RULE IX. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 161 

If a comparison is expressed between two nouns refining bo dif- 
ferent persona or things, t'l; 1 article should be used before each 
. "lie is a better politician than a lawyer h s )." In this 
sentence the same qualifications of different persons are considered. 

14. The article should be used before each of two or more nouns, 
having different constructi ^pressing direct contrast; it is 

repeated r\>r the sake of emphasis; as, "The day but not the 
hour was fixed.'' — "The rich and the poor suffered alike.'' 

1">. The article is placed before the noun to which it relates; as, 
A man; the children; an hour. 

16. An adjective, or an adjective qualified by an adverb, is some- 
time- placed between the article and the noun to which it relates; 
is, -1 ini nf man: the little children. 

When the adjective is qualified by as, how, so, or too, the article 
laced after the adjective; as, " How great a matter a little fire 
kindleth.'' 

17. The article is used before the following pronominal adjectives: 

.first, latter, last, little, one, other, and same; as, "Ho 
will do neither the one thing nor the other" 

The article is used after the following pronominal adjectives: — 
all. both, many, such, or what; as, "Both the men were guilty." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
. note fur each correction : — 

M o D e l 1. — " He is a better writer than a speaker." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the article a is used before each of the 
nouns speaker and writer which refer to one person having different quali- 
fications compared; but, according to Note under Rule IX., " If a com- 
parison ia expressed between two nouns referring to the same person or 
Therefore n should be omitted, and the sentence should be, "He 
is a better writer than speaker." 

2. — "The man wore ■ brown and a gray hat." 

This sentene" tse the article a is need before the ad- 

nnected with the adjective brown, both <>f which 

- of the same thing; but, according to Note under 

Rule IX.. "The article is need only witl reral adjectives oon- 

a should I i. and the lentenoe Bhonld bo, 

"The man wore a brown a 

-•' The Lad; umber of article*." 

This sentence is incorr- ti\e great, which is qualified 

by the adverb too, is placed between the noun and the article which relates 

1) 



162 RULE IX. — EXERCISES. 

to the noun; but, accordirg to Note under Rule IX., "W.ien the aijective 
is qualified by as, hoio, so, or too, the article, etc." Therefore a should be 
placed after the adjective great, and the sentence should be, " The lady pur- 
chased too great a number of articles." 

I. Franklin was no less a statesman than a philosopher. 2. A too great 
reward was given for so slight a service. - 3. The word is a noun or verlj 
according to its use. 4. The Russian and Italian people differ from each 
other in their habits and customs. 5. No person shall be eligible to the office 
of a president who shall not have attained the age of thirty -five years. 6. An 
orange is more wholesome than pine-apple. 7. The hyena is a species of a 
dog. 8. A large and small book were offered to him as a reward for his 
industry. 9. The black and the white horse was injured by his fall. 10. 
As his misfortunes resulted from his own misconduct, he had the sympathy 
of a few of his friends. 

II. I would go a long ways to hear him speak. 12. The condor is one 
of the largest of the birds of prey. 13. Nouns have three cases; nomi- 
native, possessive, and objective. 14. He was asked to read the first, second, 
and third stanza. 15. A sonnet or epigram is much more difficult to com- 
pose than prose. 16. Cincinnatus laid aside the powers granted to him as a 
Dictator, and returned to his farm. 17. A little assistance was extended to 
the poor, although ample means were at hand to supply their wants. 18. 
Who shall decide, when the doctors disagree ? 19. The pupils did not wish 
to apply to their teacher the title of a Master. 20. The fourth and fifth 
pages were lost. 21. He is a just and a true man. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the articles in the following sentences :— 

Mode l. — "A rudely carved stone marked the place of his burial." 

A. — A stone. — "A" is the indefinite article; it relates to the noun stone, 

which it limits in meaning, according to Rule IX., "An article relates, etc." 
The. — The place. — " The" is the definite article; it relates to the noun place, 

which it limits in meaning, according to Rule IX., "An article relates ; etc" 

When bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall, one 
by one, an unpitied sacrifice, in a contemptible struggle. 

Near yonder copse where once the garden smiled, 
And still where many a garden-flower grows wild, 
Tnere, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, 
The village preacher's modest mansion rose. 
A man he was to all the country dear, 
And passing rich with forty pounds a year. 



RULE X. — ADJECTIVES — NOTES. 163 



RULE X. — ADJECTIVES. 

An adjective relates to the noun or the pronoun which 
it describes or linii, 

NOTES. 

1. An adjective may describe or limit a phrase, a clause, or a sen- 

That he did all in his power, is certain." 
An adjective sometimes describes the meaning of another ad- 
\n iro n-g raj/ horse. The two adjectives should be con- 
1 by a hyphen, thus forming a compound adjective. 
An adjective sometimes relate- to a noun described or limited by 
another adjective, tfre noun and the latter adjective forming a com- 
plex noun; as, A bright little boy; an intelligent young man, 

2. An adjective is sometimes used abstractly after a participle, or 
a verb in the infinitive mode, that is, without relating to any noun 
or pronoun : as, " To be honest is the best way of being trusted. " 

3. Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, especially when pre- 
1 by the definite article, or by a pronominal adjective; as, "The 

vessel was tossed by the billows of the deep" — " None but the brave 
•." — "All partial evil is universal good/ 1 

4. When an is used to express a comparison between two 
"object- considered separately, the comparative degree should be 

nd was more mature than his body." 
When the comparative degree is used, if the objects compared 
belong to one and the same class, the latter term of comparison 
shmi include the former: thus, " Shakspeare is more admired 

than any English poet," should be, "Shakspeare is more admired 
than any other English poet." 

5. When an adjective is used to express the highest or the lowest 
quality belonging to two or more objects considered as one class, the 
luperlatn should be used: as, "Although gold is the most 

. it is of the A asf real use/' 
When the legree is used, the latter term of the com- 

mould always include the former: thus, "Shakspeare is the 
st admired E hould be, " Shakspeare 

I of all / ' • V 

6. • or of the superlative degree 

evil/' should be, " the less 
\ — " The /. should be, " the strictest sect." 

7. In prose, an adjective should never be used instead of an adverb, 



164 RULE X. — NOTES. 

to qualify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb: thus, l He arose 
sLiv from the ground, and resumed his journey/' should be, "He 
arose slowly, etc." 

In poetry, an adjective is sometimes used instead of an adverb; 
as, "Slow rises merit, when by poverty oppressed," instead of 
" Slowly rises merit, etc/' In the former sentence, slow is to be 
parsed as an adverb. 

8. When an adjective follows a finite verb, and is not followed by 
a noun or a pronoun mentioned or understood, it relates to the 
subject of the verb ; as, " The ice seemed to be as smooth as glass." 
— "He was pronounced guilty." — " The snow lies deep" 

9. An adjective expressing plurality must relate to a noun in the 
plural number: thus, "He stood six feet high/' not, "He stood six 
foot high." — " A pole twenty feet long." 

Certain nouns, used collectively, retain the singular form when 
preceded by numeral adjectives expressing plurality; as, " A hun- 
dred head of cattle were sold." — -"A fleet of twenty sail appeared." 

When a compound adjective is composed of a numeral and a noun, 
the latter is never made plural; as, "A hoenty-foot pole was used." 
— " The pocket-book contained two five-dollar notes." 

10. An adjective is generally placed before the noun, but after the 
pronoun to which it relates; as, An able lawyer. — "He is old and 
feeble." — " The groves were man's first temples." 

There are many exceptions to this rule of position, especially in 
poetry. In general, the adjective should be so placed that there can 
be no doubt as to what noun or pronoun it describes or limits. 

11. A pronominal or a numeral adjective precedes another ad- 
jective which describes the same noun; as, "The three dishonest 
clerks were arrested." — " That accomplished young lawyer greatly 
distinguished himself." 

12. When two numeral adjectives, one denoting unity, the other 
plurality, precede a noun, the noun is made plural, and the adjective 
denoting plurality is placed next to it; as, " The first three stanzas" 

If the first stanza of each of three poems were intended, it would 
be correct to say, " The three first stanzas." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or 
the note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " The hermit lived in the most strictest seclusion." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the adjective most strictest has two signs 
of the superlative degree {most and -est) ; but, according to Note under Rule X., 
" Two signs of the comparative or of the superlative degree should never be 



RULE X. — EXERCISES. 165 

used." Therefore most should be omitted, aud the sentence should 6e, ' ' The 
nermit lived in the strictest seclusion." 

2. " This was more Wilson's case than any man's that ever wrote." 

This sentence is incorrect, because man, the latter term of the comparison, 
Includes Wih </>. the former; thai is. they are not considered separately j but, 
rding to Note under Huh- X.. "When the comparative degree is used, 
etc." Therefore other should he inserted before the noun man, and the son- 
tenec should be, " This was more Wilson's ease than any other man's that 
ever wrote." 

1. His writings are remarkable chaste and clear. 2. Colleges afford more 
general and higher instruction than common schools. 3. Which is the most 
northern division of the Eastern Continent, Asia or Europe? 4. He seemed tho 
best informed of any historian of the age in which he lived. 5. Few writers 
made hits which were more happier than his. 6. Education is more universal 
with the Caucasian than any race. 7. His language was so plain that I under- 
1 him the best of all others that spoke on the subject. 8. The words of 
the preacher were rather earnest, but suitably to the occasion. 9. The popu- 
fcion of Russia is greater than that of any nation of Europe. 10. Our bodies 
1 be kept more perpendicular than is customary with us. 11. The water 
is only five foot deep on the bar. 12. More superior advantages are nowhere 
offered. 13. The four last leaves were torn from the volume. 

14. The most robust and strongest of the two was the first to fade. 15. Pat- 
rick Henry was more eloquent than any orator in America. 16. It has often 
been said that great bodies move slow. 17. Some trisyllables have the 
former syllable accented, and the latter unaccented. 18. Of all other beings 
man has the best reason to be proud on account of his many privileges. 
•ieved him so much as the ingratitude of the son whom he had 
loved s<> dear. 20. A farmer's life is most generally considered as more 
independent than any. 21. Two pound to the ton were all that could be 
obtained. 22. The word was parsed agreeable to the rules which govern 
•uch connections. 23. Of all other figures of speech irony should be the 
most carefully employed. 24. The more inland the towns were, the more 
healthier seemed their inhabitants. 25. The field yielded about twenty-five 
bushel to the acre. 25. The floor was formed of six-inches boards. 27. 
se neither, rather than the least, of two evils. 

in the following sentences: — 
Model 1. — ton of our friend ant/* 

want. — " Plea- 
sant" is an ad ; be compan «nf, comp. pleaManter 9 
euper. pleasantcst)-, it is in the positive degree, and relates to the phrase, 



166 RULE X. — EXERCISES. 

To receive the approbation of our friends, whioh it limits according to Note 
under Rule X., "An adjective may describe or limit, etc." 

2. — " A white-haired old man placed himself at their head." 

White-haired. — White-haired old man.- — " White-haired" is a compound 
adjective; it can not be compared; — it relates to the adjective old and the 
noun man used together as a complex noun; according to Note under 
Rule X., "An adjective sometimes relates to a noun described, etc." 

3. — " The New Zealand chiefs tattoo their faces." 

New Zealand. — New Zealand chiefs. — "New Zealand" is a proper noun 
used as an adjective; it can not be compared; — it relates to the noun chiefs, 
which it describes, according to Rule X., "An adjective relates, etc." 

Peace. — Lovely art thou, Peace! and lovely are thy children, and lovely 
are the prints of thy footsteps in the green valleys. 

Blue wreaths of smoke rise among the trees, betraying the half-hidden cot- 
tage ; the eye contemplates well-thatched ricks and barns bursting with plenty. 

White houses peep through the trees; cattle stand cooling in the pool; the 
casement of the farm-house is covered with jessamine and honeysuckle; the 
stately green-house exhales the perfume of summer climates. 

The housewife's stores of bleached linen, whiter than snow, are laid up 
with fragrant herbs; they are the pride of the matron, the toil of many a 
winter's night. 

War. — The smoke rises not through the trees, for the honors of th*> grove 
are fallen, and the hearth of the cottage is cold; but it rises from villages 
burned with fire, and from warm ruins spread over the now naked plain. 

The groans of the wounded are in the hospitals, and by the roadside, and 
in every thicket; and the housewife's web, whiter than snow, is scarcely suffi- 
cient to stanch the blood of her husband and sons. 

Everything unholy and unclean comes abroad from its lurking-place, and 
deeds of darkness are done beneath the eye of day. The villagers no 7 onger 
start at horrible sights ; the soothing rites of burial are denied, and htiman 
bones are tossed by human hands. 

Oh ! a dainty plant is the ivy green 

That creepeth o'er ruins old ! 
Of right choice food are his meals, I ween, 

In his cell so lone and cold. 
The walls must be crumbled, the stones decayed, 

To pleasure his dainty whim; 
And the mouldering dust that years have made, 

Is a merry meal for him. 



KULE XI. — PEOXOMINAL ADJECTIVES NOTES. 167 



RULE XI. — PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

A pronominal adjective relates to the noun which it 
limits, — or agrees with the noun which it represents, in 

number, person, and gender. 

NOTES. 

1. This and that refer to nouns in the singular number; these and 
. to nouns in the plural; as, This man; these men. 

2. This and these refer definitely to what is near; as, " This valley 
ery fruitful." 

That and those refer to what is distant, or to what is farther 
away than something else; as, "Those mountain-tops are covered 
with snow." 

In contrast, or when two things are named, this and these refer to 
the latter, and that and those, to the former; as, "Reason is superior 
to instinct: this (instinct) belongs to the brute, that (reason), toman." 

3. Them is sometimes incorrectly used for those: thus, "Them acts 
injured himself only," should be, " Those acts, etc." 

4. Each refers singly to two or to more than two objects; as, 
u Each pupil in the class was present." 

5. Either and neither refer to one of two objects only. Either 
means one or the other of two objects, and neither means not eithei 
of two; as, " Two plans were proposed, but neither gained favor." 

Etilier is often improperly used for each: thus, "Tall oaks lined 
either side of the road," should be, " Tall oaks lined each side, etc." 

6. Every refers to each of more than two objects, and means all 
taken separately or singly; as, "Every good tree bringeth forth 
good fruit. " 

aetimi - used before a numeral adjective and a noun 
taken to denote a collective number or quantity; as, Every Jive 
j ; every three bushels, 

7. Another and i r to nouns in the singular; as, One mail, 
another man ; other, to nouns in the singular or in the plural; as, 
I ther book; the > other books. 

When they are used as nouns, they can be declined, another being 
in the singular only. 

8. . ; Qoana in the singular or in the plural; and ii 
used to d< ngly or emphatically some indefinite object; 

as, "The powers of any man's mind are strengthened by use." 



168 RULE XI. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 

9. All refers to more than two objects, and includes them taken 
jointly; as, " All men can distinguish between good and evil." 

10. None, although strictly meaning no one, refers to nouns in 
the singular or in the plural; as, "A book was wanted, but none 
was to be found/-' — "Many boys were struck, but none of them 
were injured." 

11. Some denotes one or an indefinite portion, and refers to nouns 
in the singular or in the plural; as, "Some one must do the work." 
— " Some of the work was finished." 

12. Such denotes an object of the same nature as another, and 
refers to nouns in the singular or in the plural; as, "Such a sight 
was never witnessed before." 

13. Few, several, and many (except when immediately followed by 
a), refer to nouns in the plural. 

14. Which and what, and the compounds formed from them, refer 
to nouns in the singular or in the plural. 

15. A pronominal adjective is parsed as. an adjective when the 
noun which it limits is mentioned; as, "Each boy's conduct was 
deserving of praise." 

A pronominal adjective may be parsed as a pronoun, that is, as 
representing a noun, when it is correctly used without an article, and 
the noun is not mentioned ; as, "Bachw&s praised for his good conduct." 

An adjective is used as a noun when it describes or limits 
no noun mentioned, and has an article before it; as/~"^The many 
are not wise: a few were saved." — " The weary may here find 
rest." The noun, however, may be supplied, and weary, few, etc. 
may be parsed as adjectives. 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " These sort of animals is found only in warm climates." 

This sentence is incorrect, because these, which is a demonstrative pro- 
nominal adjective in the plural, is used to refer to the noun sort, which is in 
the singular number; but, according to Note under Rule XL, "This and thai 
refer, etc." Therefore these should be this, and the sentence should be, 
" This sort of animals is found only in warm climates." 

2. — " Either of the five men was considered qualified." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the distributive pronom. adjective either 
is used in referring to more than two objects; but, according to Note under 
Rule XL, "Either and neither refer, etc." Therefore either should be each, and 
the sentence should be, "Each of the five men was considered qualified." 



RULE XI. — EXERCISES. 169 

1. Neither of those three seems to know that their opinions are u^jnst. 2. 
Them sentiments Bhould never be eneouraged among youth. 3. That dif- 
ferent speoies of reptiles are not found in the same latitude. 4. On either 
side the s ddiers I the greatest oourage. 5. Neither side of a square 

...■nal joining its opposite angles. 6. Those bad news 
I like wild-fire. 7. lie hade farewell to his friends and foes; with those 
he left hi< peace, and with these his love. S. Any one of the two subjects 
would have been very interesting. 9. These chiss of minerals is found only 
in the mountainous regions in the western part of South America. 10. Ho 
has not left his house this last three months. 

Exercise II. — Parse the pronominal adjectives in the following sen- 
tences : — 

Model 1. — "Each of the students seemed desirous to excel in the con- 
test for the prize." 

Each. — Each seemed. — "Each" is a distributive pronominal adjective; it 

represents the noun student (understood), with which it agrees in the singular 

number, third person, masculine or feminine gender, according to Rule XL, 

onominal adjective, etc."; it is in the nominative case, being the subject 

of the verb seemed, according to Rule L, "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

2. — "Some instruction is not adapted to young minds." 

e. — Some instruction. — "Some" is an indefinite pronominal adjective; 
it cannot be compared ; — it relates to the noun instruction which it limits, ac- 
cording to Rule XL, "A pronominal adjective, etc." 

I. Every citizen should obey the laws of the country by which he is pro- 
tected. 2. Although the wise have many advantages over the ignorant, these 
are not always miserable, nor are those always happy. 3. A man who has 

stry and perseverance can by these means provide for all his natural 
wants. 4. The oak sometimes overtops all the other trees in the forest. 5. 
During these five years the ministry endeavored to provide some means to 
insure success. 6. In that secluded spot some of the happiest days of the 
emigrant's life were spent. 7. No person who is less than thirty-five years 
old is eligible to the office of President of the United States. 8. Such deport- 
ment was unbecoming in his position. 9. All the details are such as to make 
one shudder with horror. 10. Each of the candidates presented his claims 
to the position. 

II. Another's hand has laid him low. 12. Every man's fortune depends 
. on his own exertions. 13. Some, Cupid kill- with arrows; BOme, with 

14. There is no man suddenly either excellently good, or extremely 
evil. 15. To what base uses the noble gifts of man's nature are sometimes 
perverted! 16. There is none made so great as not to need both the help 

15 

t 



170 RULE XII. — AGREEMENT OF FINITE VERBS. 

and the service of the meanest of mortals. 17. Some desire is needed to keef 
life in motion; and he whose real wants are supplied must admit tho.e of 
fancy. 18. Rest satisfied with doing well, and leave others to talk of you at 
they please. 19. Some one commended Philip of Macedon for drinking freely ; 
Demosthenes replied: "That is a good quality in a sponge, but not in a king. >; 
20. Good will, like a good name, is got by many actions, but lost by one. 

RULE XII. — AGREEMENT OF FINITE VERBS. 

A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and 
person. 

NOTES. 

1. The pronoun we or you, even when representing a single indi- 
vidual, requires the plural form of a verb, because the form of the 
pronoun is plural; as, " Hai?ry, I think that you are in error/' 

2. Every finite verb, except a verb in the imperative mode, should 
have a subject mentioned, unless two or more verbs are connected in 
the same construction. 

3. A verb never agrees with a noun in the first or the second 
person, but with the pronoun representing such noun; as, "James, 
thou art an honest boy." 

4. A verb preceded by the indefinite personal pronoun it, and fol- 
lowed by another nominative, agrees with its subject it, and not with 
the other nominative; as, "It was you, "— not, "It were you." 

5. A verb in the imperative mode agrees with the pronoun thou or 
you understood; as, " Go (thou)' to the ant, thou sluggard." 

6. A verb having for its subject a phrase, or a clause, used as 
a noun, agrees with it in the singular number, third person; as, 
" To conquer one's spirit is better than to take a city." 

7. A verb, having for its subject a collective noun which suggests 
an idea of unity, is in the singular number; as, "Congress holds its 
sessions in the national capital." 

A collective noun which suggests an idea of plurality requires a 
verb in the plural; as, "The clergy were blamed for the part which 
they took in such cases." 

8. The number of a verb having for its subject a noun which has 
the same form in both numbers, is determined by the meaning of its 
subject, and not by the form; as, "A brace of ducks were sold." 

9. A verb having two or more subjects connected by and men- 
tioned or understood, is in the plural number; as, "Truths honor , 
and mercy, are noble qualities." 



RULE XII. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 171 

Two or more subjects in the singular connected bj ani indused 
note but one person or thing, require a verb in the singular ; as, 
|4 Tha1 atitudeofhifi countrymen/ 1 

When singular subjects connected by and are preceded b] 

. //". or a similar distributive, they are considered separal 
and require a verb in the singular; as, "Every nerve and sinew was 
i make the effort." 
Two or more subjects connected by as weU as, and also, but not, 
etc., belong to different propositions, and the verb mentioned agrees 
with the first, each of the others being the subject of a verb under- 
. as, "The mother, as well as her children, was saved." 
li>. A verb, having two or more subjects in the singular connected 
by or or nor, is in the singular number; as, "Neither the time nor 
ansc of the accident is knovm." 
When one of the subjects connected by or or nor is plural, the 
verb should be plural ; and the plural subject should be placed next 
to the verb; as, " Neither he nor his friends were to be blamed." 

11. A subject having a plural form, but forming a part of a com- 
blez noun, requires a verb in the singular; as, " Johnson's 'Lives 
of tit ublished in London." 

12. A verb having two or more subjects of different persons con- 
uected by and, is in the first person if one of the subjects is in the 
first person; as, "II and I (we) are going." 

If there is no subject in the first person, the verb is in the second 
of the subjects is in the second person; as, "You and 
he (you) are going." 

L*J. A verb having two or more subjects of different persons con- 
nected by or or nor, agrees in person with the subject nearest to it; 
18, "/7 r I ■ g ' : :" • 5 ■"'"</< or lam. 

14. The subject of a verb may have a noun or a pronoun of a differ- 
' ent person in d with it ; as, "/, your best friend, advise you." 

The verb agrees with the first noun or pronoun. 

E x i. B C i - ■ I. — i ' < ct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
I note for each ooi 

I i. I. — "• I at the result." 

This sentence i3 incorrect, because the verb was turprised, which is in the 
.lar numb irhioh is a ] ronouD in 

ural number; but, 8 !' lie XII.. "A finite verb agrees, etc." 

I Ther iid the sentence should be, 

"We were all surprised ;i f the result/ 1 
2. — "Honor and shame from no condition ri.-> 

i 



172 RULE XII. — EXERCISES. 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb rises, which is in \jne singijar 
number, is used to agree with its two subjects, the nouns honor and shame, 
which are connected by and; but, according to Note under Rule XII., "A 
verb having two or more subjects connected by and, etc." Therefore rises 
should be rise, and the sentence should be, " Honor and shame from no 
condition rise." 

3. — " Every plant, every insect, every animal, have an important part in 
the economy of nature." 

This sentence is incorrect, because have, which is a verb in the plural num- 
ber, is used to agree with plant, insect, and animal, which are subjects in the 
singular preceded by every; but, according to Note under Rule XII., "When 
singular subjects connected by and are preceded by each, etc." Therefor© 
have should be has, and the sentence should be, " Every plant, every insect, 
and every animal has an important part in the economy of nature." 

4. — " He or I is to go." 

This sentence is incorrect, because is, which is a verb in the third person, 
is used to agree with the pronouns he and 7, two subjects of different persons 
connected by or; but, according to Note under Rule XII., "A verb having 
two or more subjects of different persons, etc." Therefore is should be am, 
and the sentence should be, " He or I am to go." 

1. The working class of the people is much better educated than they 
formerly was. 2. Idleness and wastefulness has brought thousands from 
wealth to poverty. 3. One or both of the boys is in the garden. 4. Mathe- 
matics are a study which require close attention. 5. The rise or fall of wages 
depend much upon the cost of food. 6. The bear, as well as the deer, are 
nearly extinct in the eastern part of the United States. 7. The white sails 
of the schooner appears like the wings of great sea-fowls. 8. A succession 
of poor harvests were the occasion of great suffering among the peasantry. 
9. Only a few stones and the lines of a fort remains of the once important 
city. 10. Labor, perseverance, and patience, overcomes all obstacles to pro- 
gress. 11. Thou or he art to be blamed for the careless way which the 
work was done in. 12. Not one of those who appear so gay are free from 
trouble. 13. It were not them who was so much in fault as it was him. 14. 
His principal amusement and occupation were reading. 

15. Much does pride and haughtiness require reproof. 16. The religion, 
as well as the customs and manners, of those nations are entirely different 
from all others. 17. To eat heartily, to drink much, and to use little exer- 
cise, destroys health, 18. He, thou, or I, is the one who are to be rewarded. 
19. Some goods belonging to the ship was saved, but neither the crew nor 
the commander was to be found after the wreck. 20. A thousand head of 



RULE XII. — EXERCISES. 173 

cattle is sometimes seen feeding on the prairie?. 21. The people rejoices 
when it has honest and capable rulers. "2'2. The fleet were soon attached and 
compelled to surrender. 23. Henry, waa you present daring the trial? ~4. 
The Congress of the United States are composed of a Senate and a House 

of Representatives. 25. The number of senators from each of the States are 
limited to two. 26. The ant and the bee is often cited as good examples 
of industry. 27. The traitor and renegade, Arnold, were despised even by 
those who his treason aided. 

:e RCI SB 1 1. — Parse the finite verbs in the following sentences : — 

IfODIL 1. — " Henry studies his lesson." 

Studies. — Henry studies lesson. — " Studies" is a finite transitive verb, regu- 
lar pres. study, past, studied, pert*, part, studied); it is in the active voice, 
indicative mode, present tense, and in the singular number, third person, to 
agree with its subject, the noun Henry, according to Rule XII., " A finite verb 
agrees with its subject in number and person/' 

2. — *' Henry and James study diligently." 

Study. — Henry and James study. — "Study" is a finite intransitive verb, 
ar (pres. study, past, studied, perf. part, studied); — in the indicative 
mode, present tense, and in the plural number, third person, to agree with 
its two subjects, the nouns Henry and James, connected by and, according to 
Rule XIL, ° A finite verb agrees, etc.," and Note under Rule XII., "A verb 
having two or more subjects connected by and, etc." 

3. — " Each name and number should be distinctly written." 

Should be written, — (Each) name and Number should be written. — "Should 
he written" is a finite transitive verb, irregular (pres. write, past, wrote, perf. 
part, written); — in the passive voice, potential mode, past tense, and in the 
sing, num., third person, to agree with its two subjects, the nouns name and 
i r, which are in the singular end connected by and and preceded by each, 
Recording to Hub' XIL. "A finite verb agrees, etc."; and Note under Rule XII., 
'When Bit jects eonne id arc preceded by each, etc." 

1. — "If it should be raining. I will remain." 

Sh<-»7d I hould bo raining. — "Should be raining"!- a 

finite intransitive verb, regular (rain, rained, rained); in the potential mode 

. progressive form, and in the Bing. number, 
third : its subject, the pronoun it, according to Rule XII., 

1 "A fin 

5. — w Th were laughod at." 

Wi 1 at. — ''Were laughed at" is i com- 

plex finite transitive verb, regular (laugh, laughed, laughed); — in the pass, 
voice, indicative mode, past tense, and in the plural number, third pel 

15* 



174 RULE XII. — EXERCISES. 

to agree with its subject, the noun excuses, according to Rule XlL, "A finite 
verb, etc." 

6. — "Were I Brutus, etc." 

Were. — /were. — "Were" is a finite intrans. verb, irregular (am, was, been);— 
in the subjunctive mode, past tense, and in the sing, number, first person, to 
agree with its subject, the pronoun /, according to Rule XII., "A finite verb, etc." 

I. Prove all things : hold fast to that which is good. 2. They are never 
alone who are accompanied by noble thoughts. 3. Science and art have done 
much to improve our condition. 4. Every party, as well as every tribe, has 
its chief, who controls those who are subordinate to him. 5. The ambassador 
with his secretary arrived safely at court. 6. " Do to others as you would 
have others do to you," should be the rule of conduct for all. 7. The fleet 
frequently changed its position in order to avoid the fire of the enemy. 8. The 
embassy were unable to agree upon terms of peace. 9. A score of wild pigeons 
were killed at every discharge of the gun. 10. The scoffs, the gibes, the jeers 
of the foolish, are unheeded by the wise. 

II. You or I have been the cause of the difficulty in arranging satisfac- 
tory terms. 12. Livingstone's " Travels in South Africa" is a work of 
superior merit. 13. Neither Wellington nor his officers could entirely pre- 
vent some of the troops from committing depredations upon the Spaniards. 
14. Neither sound nor movement was detected until the attack was com- 
menced at all points. 15. Your friend and adviser is unable to help you in 
your present time of need. 16. Nitrogen and oxygen united form the air 
which we breathe. 17. The more we study the body and the mind, the more 
we find both to be governed according to such laws as we observe in the 
larger universe. 18. The actions of men are like the index of a book; they 
point out what is most remarkable in them. 19. To be angry, is to revenge 
the fault of others upon ourselves. 20. After Caesar had finished the war in 
Africa, the Roman Senate created him dictator for ten years. 

Neither a borrower nor a lender be, 
For loan oft loses both itself and friend : 
And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 
This above all, — To thine own self be true; 
And it must follow, as the night the day, 
Thou canst not then be false to any man. 

Forth in the pleasing Spring 
Thy beauty walks, Thy tenderness and love. 
Wide flush the fields; the softening air is balm; 
Echo the mountains round; the forest smiles; 
And every sense and every heart is joy. 



RULE Xirl — INFINITIVES — NOTES. 175 

RULE XIII, — INFINITIVES. 

A verb in the infinitive mode depends upon t/ic word 
which it limits or completes in meaning. 

NOTES. 

1. A verb in the infinitive mode usually depends upon a finite verb; 
but it may depend upon another infinitive, upon a participle, or upon 
any part of Bpeech except the article and the interjection. 

'2. An infinitive is sometimes used independently; as, "To speak 
the truth, I think it was he who was in fault." 

3. An infinitive may be used as a noun in the nominative or iu 
the objective case ; as, " To study seemed his only desire." 

When bo used, it may he qualified in the same manner as a verb, 

lie intended to start on his journey immediate///." 
An infinitive used as a noun may, if it is transitive and in the 
g rvern a noun or a pronoun in the objective case; as, 
" They endeavored to improve their minds by reading/' — " To make 
v is not the sole object of life.''' 
The infinitive of an intransitive vSrb, or an infinitive in the passive 
ay, when a noun, have a noun of a pronoun after it 

used independently; as "To become a good man is a nobler aim 
than . one." — M To be eleeted president was his aim." 

4. A yerb in the infinitive mode has no subject; but it may relate 
noun or to a pronoun in the nominative or in the objective case 

is, 4i They made no effort to accomplish their task." 

5. The auxiliary to should not be separated from the remainder 
of the infinitive by inserting another word: thus, " Be careful to 

xturb him," should be, "Be careful not to disturb him." 

The auxiliary to is usually omitted when the infinitive follows 

active voice of the verbs bid (to command), dare (to venture), 

hear, let, make, need, and see and verbs of similar meaning 

/, mark, observe, watch, etc.) ; as, "I did not hear him 

(to) speak on that subject." 

T<> is n er the passive voice of the verbs bid, dare, 

i by several to commit the aet" 
It may properly used after the active voice of these 

If to be in fault." 
7. \ infinitive- are connected, to ifl used with the first, 

but is usually omitted in the others ; as, " To plow, i how, cultivate, and 
reap, is the order of succession." 



176 EULE XIII. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 

8. At the end of a sentence, to should not be used for the full form 
of the infinitive: thus, "I wished to go, but I had no opportunity 
to" should be, " — I had no opportunity to go" 

9. The present tense of the infinitive should usually be used when- 
ever the action, the being, or the state, expressed by the infinitive, is 
present or future, compared with that expressed by the principal 
verb ; as, " He hoped to merit the praise of his friends/' 

Verbs expressing command, expectation, hope, intention, etc., require 
the present tense of the infinitive after them ; as, " The general 
ordered the assault to be made at daybreak." 

10. The present perfect tense of the infinitive should usually be 
used whenever the action, the being, or the state, expressed by the 
infinitive, is past, compared with that expressed by the principal 
verb ; as, " Milton seems to have had a wonderful imagination/ 7 

After seemsy appears, etc .the present perfect tense is correctly used 
if followed by a term denoting past time, or if reference is made to 
a person no longer living, or to an act known to be past ; as, "James 
seems to have been sick yesterday" — " Napoleon appeai^s to have been 
governed mostly by ambition." 

11. An infinitive having the form of the active voice is sometimes 
used with a passive meaning; as, "He is to blame" — "The agent 
has a house to rent" — " There are two rooms to let." 

It is, however, better to use the form of the passive voice in all such 
instances ; as, " He is to />e blamed" — "A house to be rented," 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " He did no more than it was his duty to have done." 

This sentence is incorrect, because to have done, which is the present perfect 
tense of the infinitive, is used to express an action which was present com- 
pared with the time of the action expressed by the verb did, upon which it de- 
pends ; but, according to Note under Rule XIII., " The present tense of the 
infinitive should usually be used, etc." Therefore to have done should be to 
do, and the sentence should be, "He did no more than it was his duty to do." 

2. — "He was never heard speak upon that subject." 

This sentence is incorrect, because to, which is a part of the infinitive to 
speak, is omitted after was heard, the passive voice of the verb to hear ; but, 
according to Note under Rule XIII., " To is not omitted, etc." Therefore 
apeak should be to speak, and the sentence should be, "He was never heard 
to speak upon that subject." 

3. — " The man was ordered to not smoke in the car." 



RULE XIII. — EXERCISES. 177 

This sentence is incorrect, because the auxiliary to is separated from the. 

remainder of the infinitive by inserting the adverb not; but. according to 

under Rule XIII. , "The auxiliary to should not be separated, etc." 

Therefore to should be placed after not, and the sentence should be, " The 

man was ordered not to smoke in the oar. M 

I. We seldom see men to conduct themselves consistently at all times. 2. 
He had not then consented to go, nor did he intend to. 3. Milton seems to 
have his first efforts as a writer poorly appreciated. 4. Endeavor in all ways 

t all times to properly conduct yourself. 5. Each hoped to have received 
the reward to which they considered himself to be entitled. 6. Peace is not 

lished throughout the world, and is not likely to yet. 7. If thou be 
bidden do an act, why do you let it to remain undone? 8. It were they who 
tried to repeatedly annoy us by their interruptions. 9. lie never intended 
to have let such an opportunity to pass unimproved. 10. Casar appears to 
be possessed of an ambitious character. 

II. The clerk was to blame for the loss of the document. 12. It was 
impossible to clearly distinguish the objects at so great a distance. 13. Tho 
hunter was heard say, that he would dare any one mount the wild horse who 
he had captured. 14. The prisoner felt himself- be deserving of the punish- 
ment inflicted upon him. 15. I wished- to have gone with my friends into 
the country, but I was forbidden to. 16. The French expected to have gained 
much by their invasion of Russia. 17. The boy seems to be sick lately, 
judging from his present weakness. 18. AVe should make our influence be 
felt by those who we expect to govern. 19. The man who resolves to 
patiently wait for the results of his labor will succeed. 20. Some are content 
to learn only what costs them no effort to. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the infinitives in the following sentences : — 

MOD I L 1. — " He hastened to leave the country." 

j i , nrr. — Hastened to leave cowntry* — " To leave" is a transitive verb, irro- 
gular (/pare, left, 18 in the active voice, infinitive mode, present tense, 

and depei the verb hastened, which it completes in meaning, accoid- 

ing to Rule XIII., "A verb in the infinitive mode, etc." 

2. — •• Love to study I eoause of the pleasure it affords.' 1 

j., ttudy. — Lovi to study. — u To study" is an intransitive rerb, regular, 
in the infn ; it ifi u* d as h 

noun in the singular number, third | I of the neuter gender; in the 

; th^ objeel Of the | by the verb love^ 

to Rule IV., "A noun of a pronoun which i- the object, etc." 
3. — " H '■:. a miracle of leaxnil 

Jl speak. — ''To speak" is an intransitive verb, irregular (speak, spoke. 



178 RULE XIV. — PARTICIPLES — NOTES. 

spoken) ; and is in the infinitive mode, present tense; it is used independently, 
according to Note under Rule XIII., "An infinitive is sometimes used, etc." 

4. — "He knows better than to disobey his parents." 

To disobey. — Than to disobey parents. — "To disobey" is a trans, verb, reg. 
(disobey y disobeyed, disobeyed) ; it is in the active voice, infinitive mode, pre- 
sent tense, and depends upon the conjunction than which it completes in 
meaning, according to Rule XIIL, "A verb, etc." 

I. In summer nature seems to smile with gladness. 2. It is sometimes 
difficult to determine whether an act is right or wrong until the motive is 
known. 3. Learn to labor, and to wait. 4. He has never learned to com- 
mand, who has not also learned to obey. 5. To enjoy the blessings of peace, 
was the ardent wish of the people. 6. To read, to write, and to cipher, are 
generally considered three all-important objects. 7. Government, to fulfill the 
purposes for which it is established, should protect the rights of all. 8, To 
become rulers is not in the power of every one, yet it is possible for all to 
become good men, and useful citizens. 9. It does little good to preach virtue 
and temperance unless precept is enforced by example. 10. To be reproved 
by a wise man is better than to be praised by a fool. 

II. Never be ashamed to confess ignorance, for that is a step towards 
knowledge. 12. But when thou doest alms, let not thy left hand know what 
thy right hand doeth. 13. It is impossible to calculate the power which good 
example has to influence society. 14. He, their sire, butchered to make a 
Roman holiday! 15. And darest thou, then, to beard the lion in his den, — 
the Douglas in his hall? 16. 0! that men should put an enemy in their 
mouths to steal away their brains ! 17. To smell a turf of fresh earth is 
wholesome to the body. 18. Then I commended mirth, because a man hath 
no better thing under the sun, than to eat, and to drink, and to be merry. 19. 
To gild refined gold, or to paint the lily, is ridiculous excess. 

RULE XIV. — PARTICIPLES. 

A participle relates to the noun or the pronoun which 
it describes or limits. 

NOTES. 

1. A participle maybe used as a noun in the nominative or in the 
objective case; as, "Reading good books promotes knowledge." — 
" The morals are corrupted by reading bad books." 

A participle used as a noun may govern the objective case, and at 
the same time may be qualified in the same manner as a verb; as, 
H His leaving tl: e city so suddenly occasioned much surprise." 






RULE XIV.— NOTES EXERCISES. 179 

2. A participle sometimes becomes a noun simply: as, "Ru fining 
and wrestling were favorite sports among the Greeks." 

In such instances it may be qualified by an adjective, but not by 
an adverb; as, "Rapid running depends much upon training." 

3. A partieiple preceded by an article or an adjective is a noun 
simply, and is generally followed by the preposition of to govern an ob- 
jective following: as, "That reading of the play was much admired." 

A participle used as a noun may be preceded by a possessive or 
an adjective without being followed by of; as, "Mary's 'playing the 
piece was not expected." — "Fluent speaking is generally the result 
of practice." 

If the active participle of a transitive verb is used as a noun, it is 
not preceded by an article unless it is followed by of; nor is it fol- 
lowed by of unless it is preceded by an article, an adjective, or a 
sessive: thus, "By the learning grammar our language is im- 
proved," should be, "By the learning of grammar, etc.", or, "By 
learning grammar, etc." 

The meaning is usually the same when the article and of or the 
adjective and of are used, as when they are omitted, — although such 
is not always the case, as is apparent in the following sentences: 
"He was ruined by burning his house." — "lie was ruined by the 
burning of his house." 

4. A participle is sometimes used as an adjective, and should be 
so parsed; as, "The sound of falling waters was heard." 

5. A participle may sometimes be used abstractly after a verb in 
the infinitive mode; that is, without relating to any word; as, "To 
be always working would be ruinous to the health." 

6. A participle may have a noun or a pronoun after it used inde- 
pendently; as, "His being called a wit did not make him one." 

7. The auxiliaries 7^/ re and be are never joined with the past tense 
of a verb, but with the perfect participle; as, "He has gone to travel 
in Europe," — not, "He has icent, etc." 

8. The perfect participle should never be used instead of the past 

•ess simply past time: thus, "James seen him do it," 
should be. " James saw him do it." — "He begun \began\ to read." 

9. A participle should not be used if the meaning can be more 

1 by the use of a verb in the infinitive mode, or 
of an equivalent expression: thus, " Exciting hopes which can not 
lie fulfilled is wrong," should b excite hopes, etc." 

BxBBOISl I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 



180 RULE XIV. — EXEKC,BES. 

Model 1. — "By the telling the truth at all times, we may be trusted." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the article the is used before the par- 
ticiple telling, which is used as a noun, and is not followed by of; but, ac- 
cording to Note under Rule XIV., " If the active participle of a transitive 
verb is used as a noun, etc." Therefore the should be omitted, and the sen- 
tence should be, " By telling the truth at all times, etc." 

2. — " James has saw the whole transaction." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the auxiliary have is joined with saw, 
which is the past tense of the verb to see; but, according to Note under 
Rule XIV., " The auxiliaries have and be are never joined, etc." Therefore 
saw should be seen, and the sentence should be, " James has seen, etc." 

I. Reading poetry properly requires a knowledge of the author's meaning. 
2. The pupil who was a striking of his class-mate, deserved the punishment 
which was gave him. 3. The audience expressed the pleasure which they 
experienced in hearing of the lecturer. 4. The travelers had not proceeded 
far before they were overtook by a party of horsemen. 5. It is thought he 
would have went, had he been invited. 6. The English language is spoke 
in nearly all parts of the world. 7. Arnold done an act which will forever 
leave a blot upon his name. 8. John thinks he seen his friends pass by. 
9. I would have wrote sooner, but the writing letters is always unpleasant to 
me. 10. After he had drank freely of cold water he felt better. 

II. Some one has took from me all the materials which I had for writing 
of the essay. 12. The teacher forbid them playing during the time set apart 
for the studying their lessons. 13. The work assigned would have been 
began but for an unexpected accident. 14. The using the rod too frequently 
leads to degrading of the mind. 15. He might have chose a profession which 
would be more pleasant to him. 16. No one done more for the relief of the 
suffering than he. 17. True courage is sometimes shown by suffering of ills 
without complaining. 18. A bridge was formed by a tree which had fell across 
the ravine. 19. Having written of his letters, he commenced a writing of 
his composition. 20. Although he done nothing criminal, yet his conduct 
was blameworthy. 



Exercise 1 1. — Parse the participles in the following sentences :- 
Model 1. — "An opportunity neglected never returns." 
Neglected, — Opportunity neglected. — "Neglected" is the perfect participle 
of the passive voice of the trans., regular verb to neglect (imp. being neglected. 
perf. neglected, preperf. having been neglected) ; it relates to the noun oppor- 
tunity, which it describes, according to Rule XIV., " A participle, etc." 

2, — " By observing the faults of others, we may avoid similar ones." 






RULE XIV. — EXEtCISES. 181 

Observing.— By observing fault*.—* 4 Observing" is the imperf. part, of the 
motive voice of the trans, reg. verb to obeervt imp. obeermna, perf. obeern d, pre- 

yerf. having observed)) it is used as a noun in the Singular number, third 
>n, and of the neuter gender, — in the objective ease, being the object 
of the relation denoted by the preposition Ly. according to Rule IV., "A 
noun or a pronoun which is the object of an act in. etc" 

3. — "Reading is a very important branch of knowledge." 

Beading. — Reading*'*. — " Reading" is a participial noun, in the singular 
number, third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the nominative case, 
being the subject of the finite verb w, according to Rule I., "A noun or a pro- 
noun whieh is the subject of a finite verb, is in the nominative case." 

4. — "The earth is clothed in living beauty." 

Living. — Living beauty. — " Living" is the imperfect participle of the in- 
transitive, regular verb to live (imperf. living, perf. lived, prepcrf. hating lived)-, 
it is used as an adjective; it can not be compared; — it relates to the noun 
. whieh it describes, according to Rule X., "An adjective, etc." 

5. — M To be always finding fault is a contemptible trait." 
Finding. — To be finding fault. — "Finding" is the imp. participle of the 
active voioe of the transitive irregular verb to find (imp. finding, perfect, 
found, preperf. having found) ; it is used abstractly after the infinitive to be, 
e under Rule XIV., "A participle may sometimes, etc." 

I. Having once lost the good opinion of our friends, it is difficult for us to 
reclaim it. 2. The king never surrendered his claim to the hunting grounds 
of the nobles. 3. It is our understanding which places us above the brute 
creation. 4. Thinking he now had an opportunity for securing possession 
of the coveted territory, he marched his troops across the borders. 5. The 
continual dropping of water will wear even stones. 6. Water continually 
dropping wears even stones. 7. The horse's running was greatly admired. 8. 
The horse running, fell, and was badly injured by striking his head upon a 
projecting stone. 9. By the teaching of others our knowledge is increased. 

ling others we are likely to increase our own knowledge. 

II. A man accustomed to the changing scenes of life is never easily 
dejec tune. 12. The ambassador, having received his in- 
struct nee upon his appointed mission. 13. To continue 

i ton long freakena the system. 1 I. St living for the acquisition 
of k:. "n called "climbing the hill of science." 15. Climbing 

the hill of - < 1 difficulties. 16. The war resulted 

in a defeated army. a x empti< d of itfl n ivenUC8, and 

parties striving each for the mast ry. 17. ining 

true to tV.e cause. l Q . Nothii y the deceased can justify you in 

16 



182 RULE XV. ADVERBS — NOTES. 

having treated them so cruelly. 19. The meaning of the sentertfe was altered 
by his reading of the passage selected. 20. The visiting of our friends gave 
them pleasure. 21. We derived great pleasure from visiting our friends at 
the place proposed, and on the appointed day. 22. A word fitly spoken is like 
apples of gold in pictures of silver. 23. Thoughts shut up want air, and spoil 
like bales unopened to the sun. 

For Freedom's battle, once begun, 
Bequeathed by bleeding sire to son, 
Though baffled oft, is ever won. 

Canst thou minister to a mind diseased; 
Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow; 
Raze out the written troubles of J>e brain? 

RULE XV. — ADVERBS. 

An adverb relates to the verb, the adjective, or the other 
adverb, which it qualifies. 

NOTES. 

1. A conjunctive adverb relates to the two verbs which it qualifies, 
one in one clause and one in another; as, "Whither thou goest, I 
will go." — " Think before you speak." 

2. An adverb sometimes relates to a preposition, or to a preposi- 
tion and its object ; as, "Just before us lay the city/' — " He perished 
almost in sight of land." — " The ball struck exactly in the centre" 

An adverb may relate to a clause or to a sentence; as, "Truly 
this man was the Son of God." 

Certain adverbs seem also to relate partially to nouns or to pro- 
nouns; as, "We, not you, are wrong." — "Even the detective was 
deceived." 

In all such instances, however, the adverbs should be parsed as 
qualifying the verb. 

3. An adverb is sometimes used independently; as, "Indeed, I was 
cot aware of the change." — "Will you accept my terms? No,' 9 — 
" Yea, the earth itself shall pass away." 

4. The adverbs yes, yea, no, nay, and amen, in answer to questions, 
may be regarded as the equivalents of propositions. They then 
qualify no verb. 

5. The adverb there, occurring at or near the beginning of a 
sentence, does not always imply place, but is often a mere expletive 
used to avcid abruptness; as, " There is a land of pure delight." 



RULE XV. — NOTES. 183 

6. An adverb sometimes relates to a verb which is not mentioned, 
but which may be readily suggested by the adverb used; as, "Out, 
brief candle!" — "Away, slight man!" 

7. An adverb should not be used as an adjective, nor should it ovor 
be employed to denote quality: thus, " The alone idea," — "The 
soonest moment," etc., should be, "The sole idea," — "The earliest 
moment," etc.; "She looks sweetly" — "It tastes bitterly" etc., 
should be, " She looks sweet," — "It tastes bitter," etc. 

8. The adverb ever is sometimes incorrectly used for never; as, 
"It rarely or ever [never] snows in this latitude." 

9. No as an adverb can qualify comparatives only; as, "The task 
no longer appeared difficult." Therefore no should never be used 
after or to qualify a verb understood: thus, "Will you go, or no?" 
should be, "Will you go, or (will you) not (go) ?" 

10. The adverb how should not be placed before the conjunction 
that; nor should as, how, or as how, be used for that: thus, " I am 
not sure low (or, as how) I can come," should be, "I am not sure 
that I can come." 

11. In the use of the adverbs ichen and whe?*e, care should be taken 
not to employ them improperly for the pronoun which and its accom- 
panying words : thus, " The hour when the train was due," should be, 
"The hour in (or at) which, etc." — "There was no family where he 
was Dot welcome," should be, "There was no family in which, etc." 

12. The adverbs here s there, and where, which primarily denote 
position, may be used in common discourse for hither, thither, and 
whither, after verbs implying motion, but exactness requires the use 
of the latter adverbs; as, "Where are you going?" — but more 
properly, " Whither are you going?" 

13. The preposition from is sometimes inelegantly used before the 
adverbs hence, tJience, and whence, which in meaning imply this 
preposition: thus, "From whence cometh my help," should be, 
"Whence cometh my help?" 

So n here t from there, etc., are incorrectly used for from 

. etc. 

HI now, fill then, and similar expressions, are allow- 
able, l'O* lit. 

In Iverb should not be used as the object of a pro- 

positi i Bed, the two words must be regarded 

rming an \se, and must be parsed as such. 

14. ! be used in the same proposition if 

a is intended; as, "He can not do any harm," not, "lie 
can not do no harm." 



184 RULE XV. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 

A negative, however, may be repeated for the sake of emphasis; 
as, "We will never, never, never, lay down our arms." 

"When, affirmation is intended, not may be used properly, and with 
pleasing effect, to qualify an adjective having a negative prefix, such 
as dis, in, im, an, etc.: thus, "I am not indisposed to favor you," 
means, "I am disposed to favor you." 

15. Adverbs should be placed near the words which they qualify. 
In general, an adverb precedes the adjective or the adverb which it 
qualifies, — and follows the verb, or is placed between the verb and 
its auxiliary; as, "He is truly happy." — " A very carefully written 
book." — " He fought nobly, and he was nobly rewarded." 

An adverb should never be placed between to, when a part of the 
infinitive, and the verb ; " To not know," should be, "Not to know." 

The improper position of the adverbs chiefly, merely, only, (not) 
only, solely, etc., often renders the meaning ambiguous. These 
should be placed next to the words which they qualify ; thus, 
"Not only he has forfeited all right to our esteem, but he also deserves 
severe punishment," should be, "He has not only forfeited, etc." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
notes for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " How pleasantly this breeze feels." 

This sentence is incorrect, because pleasantly, which is an adverb, is used 
as an adjective to describe the noun breeze ; but, according to Note under Rule 
XV., "An adverb should not be used, etc." Therefore pleasantly should be 
pleasant, and the sentence should be, " How pleasant this breeze feels." 

2. — " The ship is soon expected to arrive. " 

This sentence is incorrect, because the adverb soon is placed so as to qualify 
the verb is expected, when, properly, it should qualify the infinitive to arrive/ 
but, according to Note under Rule XV., " Adverbs should be placed near the 
words which they qualify, etc." Therefore the sentence should be, "Tho 
ship is expected to arrive soon." 

1. That dress looks prettily upon her. 2. During his fits of melancholy 
he felt that everybody was his enemy very often. 3. Where did you come 
from here ? 4. Ambition was the alone motive of his action. 5. The ancients 
were undecided whether suicide was a crime or no. 6. The merchant went 
to Boston and from thence sailed for Liverpool. 7. The trial of Warren 
Hastings where Sheridan spoke so eloquently, will long be remembered. 8. 
He could never after all his search find nothing. 9. The persevering and 
energetic man will be successful usually. 10. Being delayed, I very near 
missed the train. 11. He said how that he had lost his leg during the last 
campaign. 12 Where I am, there ye can not come. 



RULE XV. — EXERCISES — RULE XVI. 185 

13. I do not admire neither your worda nor your acts. 14. Willing or no, 
you must go with me. 15. I did not say nothing at all, sir. 16. The explo- 

Nvas previously to the fire. 17. They arrived safely notwithstanding all 
their risks. IS From whence lie came ami where lie is going to, I know not. 

rhe chair where he usually sat still remained. 20. These opportunities 
are of seldom occurrence. ~\. The then king was George IV. 22. The dark 
mountain seemed more hugely than ever. 23. How sweetly this rose smells. 
21. Frank seldom or ever fails to perfectly recite. 25. Since when have you 
been engaged in this establishment? 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the adverbs in the following sentences : — 

Model. — "Tread softly on this hallowed ground." 

d softly. — "Softly" is an adverb of manner; — it can be com- 
pared (pos. softly, comp. more softly, sup. most softly); — it is in the positive 
degree, and relates to the verb tread, which it qualifies, according to Rulo 
XV.. " An adverb relates, etc." 

I. Did Charles act wisely in deciding so speedily? 2. Man wants but little 
here below. 3. Be scrupulously neat at all times. 4. How various his 
employments, whom the world calls idle. 5. Sometimes in distant lands I 
stray. 6. A man's genius is always, at the beginning of his life, as much 
unknown to himself as to others. 7. Then up with the flag and let it wavo 
proudly in every breeze, however gentle, however fierce. 8. These men that 
have turned the world upside down, have come hither also. 9. Peradveuturo 
he is asleep, and must be awakened. 10. Surely, you will not think of start- 
ing in so violent a storm? Indeed, you must wait awhile. 

I I. Far down in yonder glen the pious hermit dwelt. 12. The most 
enterprising are generally the most successful. 13. Immediately after this 

: se the scholars were dismissed. 14. Whiz, whiz, went the bomb, and 

all asrain ru<hed helter-skelter to covert. 15. Venice exists but in name. 

Lnd e'en his failings leaned to virtue's side. 17. The culprit was indeed " 

unworthy of that great presence. IS. Well, if this be law, I want none 

of it. 19. Britons never, never, never, will be slaves. 20. Thither at onco 

will I turn my wandering footsteps, and no longer be a dreamer among men. 

RULE XVI. — PREPOSITIONS. 

A preposition shows the relation between the noun or 
the pronoun which follows it and some preceding word. 

The pre >rd may be called the antecedent U rm of relation; 

the noun or the pronoun which follows the preposition, the tub* 
•>f term. In the expression, "The love of virtue/' "love 7 ' is 
the antecedent term, and " virtue" the subsequent. 

16* 

/ 



186 EULE XVI. — PREPOSITIONS — NOTES. 



NOTES. 

1. A preposition may show the relation between a participle, a 
verb in the infinitive mode, a phrase, or a clause, following it, and 
some preceding word; as,- "He took delight in doing good." — "The 
steamer is about to sail." — "He was eager for the conflict to begin" 
— " Success depends upon how you improve your opportunities." 

The use of the preposition for, however, before a verb in the in- 
finitive mode, is obsolete; as, " But what went ye outybr to see?" 

2. Complex prepositions show relation between terms in the same 
manner as simple or compound; as, "This book was selected from 
among them all." — "Because of these things cometh the wrath of God." 

3. In certain phrases called prepositional (or adverbial), such as, 
in particular, in short, in vain, to the right, etc., the subsequent term 
is omitted, but it must be supplied in parsing; as, " He sued in vain 
(words) for mercy." 

Sometimes when such phrases as the preceding and some others are 
used independently at the beginning of sentences, the preposition 
has no antecedent term of relation mentioned; as, " In a word, I know 
nothing about the matter." 

In parsing, some independent infinitive or participle may be sup- 
plied ; such as, to speak, speaking, etc. 

The antecedent term is not mentioned in exclamatory sentences 
like the following: "0 for a lodge in some vast wilderness." It may 
be supplied in parsing: thus, "0 I long for, etc." 

4. Two prepositions connected by a conjunction may have the 
same subsequent; as, "Did he vote for or against the measure?" — 
" Boats pass to and from the city daily." 

When, however, the prepositions are separated by several inter- 
vening words or phrases, it is often better to use the noun after the 
first preposition only, and to employ a pronoun after the second: 
thus, " I will give heed to, and be guided by, your advice," — but 
better, " I will give heed to your advice, and be guided by it." 

5. The preposition should not be omitted except where usage has 
sanctioned its omission: thus, "The subject is worthy your atten- 
tion," should be, "The subject is worthy of, etc." — "He fled the 
country" ; — supply from. 

The preposition to or unto is commonly omitted after the adjectives 
or the adverbs like, near, and nigh; as, " The son is like {adj.) his 
father." — "The house is near (adj.) the lake." — "He is nigh (adj.) 
his end." — " The Indians came near (adv.) the fort." 

The preposition is frequently omitted after verbs of giving, pro- 



RULE XVI. — NOTES. 187 

curing, etc.: as, " He gave (to) me a hook." — " Show (io) me a Chris- 
tian , and I will show (to) you a man." — " Procure (,/<»') him a ticket." 

The preposition ia usually suppressed before a term denoting time 
or measure; as, " He lived many years alter that event." — " He tra- 
veled ten miles." — "Three yards long." — " Six. feet high," etc. 

The pr e to be supplied in parsing may be by, for, during, 

in, tli rough, etc. 

The preposition of is often improperly placed before a term de- 
noting time or measure, which is already the object of relation de- 
3 noted by Boino preposition suppressed. 

Thus, the sememe. " He was a lad of nine years old," should be, 
"He was a lad (by) nine years old," or, " — of nine } T ears of age." 
So als<\ "It was a stream of sixty yards wide," should be, " It was a 
stream (by) sixty yards wide," or. " — of sixty yards in width." 

6. The place of the preposition should be such as will clearly 
show what terms are in relation: thus, ''The two parts are united 
under the Titanic* by a tunnel," should be, "The two parts are 
united by a tunnel under the Thames." 

In prose, a preposition precedes the term which is the object of its 
relation: — except the relative pronoun that, which is always placed 
before the preposition, being separated from it by intervening words; 
a-. •* It is the same person thai I wrote to you about." 

Wh nd what are also sometimes placed before the pre- 

jitions by which they are governed, — but not elegantly; as, 
" Whom do you come fromV* — " What was he guilty of?" — but better, 
" From whom do yon come?" — "Of what was he guilty?" 

In poetry, however, a preposition may follow a subsequent term; 
as,— 

" My father lived in Blenheim then, 
Yon little stream hard by." 

7. Care should be taken to use those prepositions which will cor- 
rect; M the relations intended; as, " I have need of your as- 

your assistant •." 
In denoting ntuatton^ or meaning within, is often improperly used 
for i ance: thus, "He came in the room," should 

He came inio the room/ 1 "He came into the room, and re~ 

Between or - to two objects or sets of objects only; 

. — f more than tv Between virtue and trice 

i there is no middle path." — "Among so many candidates, but oue ful- 
filled all a nditions." 



188 



RULE XVI. — NOTES — EXERCISES, 



The proper use of other prepositions must be learned froiL dic- 
tionaries, and by observation. 

Below are given a few Words with their appropriate prepositions 
following: — 



Access to. 

Acquaint loith. 

Acquit of. 

Agreeable to. 

Angry with a person, at a thing. 

Arrive at, in, not to. 

Averse to. 

Bestow upon. 

Call on a person, at a house, for a 
thing. 

Compare with (in respect of 
quality) ; to (for illustration). 

Confide in (intrans.) ; to (trans.). 

Copy after a person ; from a thing. 

Correspond with, to. 

Die of a disease; by an instru- 
ment, or violence ; for another. 

Differ with a person in opinion ; 



Different from, not to. 

Disagree with a person; to a pro- 
posal. 

Disappointed of a thing not ob- 
tained; in a thing obtained. 

Expert at (before a noun); in 
(before an active participle). 

Independently of, not on. 

Inseparable from. 

Martyr for a cause ; to a disease. 

Need of. 

Partake of in. 

Prefer, preferable, to. 

Reconcile a person to; a thing 
with. 

Rid of not from. 

Touch at a place. 

Unite to (transitive) ; with (in- 
transitive). 



from, in quality. 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " This supposition is very different to that/' 
This sentence is incorrect, because the preposition to does not correctly 
express the relation intended between its two terms, the adjective different 
and the pronominal that; but, according to Note under Rule XVI., "Care 
should be taken to use, etc." Therefore to should be from, and the sentence 
should be, " This supposition is very different from that." 






2. — " A bridge connects the two villages across the river." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the preposition across is so placed as to 
show a relation between the two terms villages and river, whereas the proper 
terms of relation are bridge and river ; but, according to Note under Rule 
XVI., " The place of the preposition, etc." Therefore the sentence should be, 
"A bridge across the river connects the two villages." 

1. Profession and practice often differ widely with each other. 2. Among 
such good friends a3 you two are, no serious quarrel should arise. 3. A 
shallow grave of oily two feet deep was hastily dug. 4. What use is this. 



RULE XVI. — EXERCISES. 189 

book to me? 5. A despatch has just been received from the Mjat of war of 
great importance at the Ledger Otlice. 6. I passed a man begging with one 
leg in the street. 7. After many years of alienation he became reconciled 
with his brother. S. The train arrived to Pittsburg two hours from its time, 
being delayed with heavy snow drift-. \K Give me the portion which belongs 
to me of goods. 10. The right will be sold for a moderate sum of retailing 
this article throughout the state. 11. For sale, a piano, by a gentleman, with 
richly carved rosewood legs, who is about to sail for Europe. 12. The affec- 
tion of David towards Jonathan was very great. 13. Such conduct is unbe- 
coming you who should be an example of the rest. 14. Where do you live 
when you are to home ? 

15. This lad. as a warning for others, should be publicly dismissed the school. 
16. lie is truly deserving all the esteem which has been bestowed upon him. 17. 
Trees were planted in regular intervals along the avenue. 18. Unfortunately 
no pains were taken to rid him from these bad habits. 19. The general rode 
along accompanied with a numerous staff. 20. He came in the room 
served, and sat down on a chair near to the wall with a broken back. 
21. Be car«ful to cherish prejudices to none. 22. A house of four stories 
high stands at the corner. 23. These lot of goods is very inferior from the 
sample you Bhowed me. 24. They have gone in the garden to take a walk. 
25. A girl is wanted who can do the work of a small family, with good refer- 
ence. 26. He said that he did not intend for to do it. 27. Who did he allude 
to in them remarks? 2S. Between we three there should be no secrets. 29. 
These things are inseparable to each other. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the prepositions in the following sentences : — 
Model 1. — M I passed several days in rambling about the country." 
In. — Patted in rambling. — " In" is a simple preposition ; it is placed before 
the imperfect participle rambling, used as a noun, to show its relation to the 
verb pass'd, according to Note under Rule XVI., "A preposition may show 
the relation between a participle, etc." 

2. — About. — Rambling about country. — " About" is a compound preposition; 
it is placed before the noun country to show its relation to the imperfect 
participle rambling used as a noun, according to Rule XVI., " A preposition 
shows, etc." 

3. — M A serpen* »m beneath the 

■ T'r io beneath" is a complex 
IH its relation t< the verb 
i glided, accordin _ X \ I., " Complex prepositions | row, etc." 

4. — " Keep to the right as the law directs." 

I 



190 RULE XVII. — CONJUNCTIONS—NOTES. 

To. — Keep to (hand). — " To" is, etc. ; it is placed before the noun hand>\tot 
mentioned) to show its relation to the verb keep, according to Rule XVL, 
"A preposition shows the relation, etc." 

1. The stream was distant from us about a mile. 2. Flattery is at war 
with the very soul of childhood. 3. The atmosphere rises above us with its 
cathedral dome arching towards the heavens. It floats around us like that 
grand image which the Apostle John saw in his vision, — "A sea of glass like 
unto crystal." 4. He had indeed left none his like behind him. 5. As to 
style, Demosthenes was his favorite author among the ancients; among the 
English, Bolingbroke and Barrow. 6. Keep to the left, and you will be safe. 
7. You will seek in vain for a better. 8. for a cup of cold water now ! 9. 
The whistling of the wind through the cordage sounded like funeral wail- 
ings. 

10. From among the dead leaves of winter the pale snowdrop now rears 
her humble head. 11. Since his death his good qualities have been much 
lauded. 12. Why, it was only last week, that Gripe the attorney recovered 
two cottages for him, worth sixty pounds. 13. As the mountains are round 
about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people. 14. The brook 
appeared to well out from beneath the hollow root of an old thorn. 15. He 
raised his head and glanced from the fluttering signal at the window to his 
bat, that lay, with slate and book and other boyish property, upon the table 
in the room. 16. Though this freedom from care was very pleasant at first, 
he soon began to be weary of having nothing to do. 17. We rode up as the 
train was about to start. 18. Trespassers will be dealt with according to 
law. 

RULE XVII. — CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunction connects the words, the parts of a sen- 
tence, or the sentences, between which it is placed. 

NOTES. 

1. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, members, or com- 
plete and distinct sentences ; — 

I. Words; as, " The moon and the planets shine "by reflected 
light. 

A sentence containing connected words is usually equivalent to a 
compound sentence containing as many sentences or propositions as 
there are words connected : thus, "James, Henry, and William came/' 
is equivalent to " James came, Henry came, and William came." 

Sentences like the following can not he changed to others in which 



RULE XVII. — NOTES. J 91 

the words will belong to separate propositions; as, "Foul and two 
make six." — " The period of man's Life is thre vrs ai d U //." 

II. Phrases; as, " IK 4 strove with all his powers, &nd to a noble end," 

III. Clauses; as. "Experiments prove ///«/ water is compress* 
ible." — "Correct me if I am wrong." 

IV. Members; as, "It was time to start, <W our guide had not 
appeared." 

V. Full and distinct sentences; as, " The air also has its influence 
upon water, etc. But, of all agencies, lire is the most powerful, etc." 

2. Conjunctive adverbs connect the clauses between which they 
are placed : as, " While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered." 
fc-2" They received me kindly when I entered." 

3. The conjunction that sometimes merely introduces a clause 
which is the subject of a finite verb in a subsequent clause; as, 
"That you have wronged me, doth appear in this." The meaning 
is, " (It) doth appear in this that you have wronged me." 

4. Words connected by conjunctions are always of the same class 
(nouns and pronouns being regarded as one class), and are in the 
same construction ; as, "Mary and she study from the same book." 
— "The ball struck him and we." — "The building is large and con- 
venient" — " The city was attacked, and (was) captured." 

5. Verbs connected by one or more conjunctions may have the 
same subject, if they agree in form, voice, mode, and tense ; as, " He 
might have come and (might have) gone without my knowledge." — 
"He was honored and (was) loved by all." 

Verbs connected require a subject mentioned for each, if they 
dijTer in form, if a contrast is made, or if a strong emphasis is 
intended: thus, "He has been reproved and will do better in the 
future," should he, "He has been reproved, and he will do better in 
Ihe future/' because the two verbs differ in voice and tense. "He 
came, but (he) did not remain long." 

By the ase of the subject before each verb, the verbs are made to 
beloi irate clauses or members. 

6. When two connected parts of a sentence have a common refer- 
ence to a third part, they should be made to accord with that part, 
and with each other, in construction: thus, "He did as much, per 
haps more, f<<r the cause than any other man/' should be, "He did 

as any other man, perhaps more." 

7. 77,'/// is used to connect a clause with a preceding clause con- 
taining an adjective or an adverb in the comparative degree, or 
containing else, other, otherwise, or rather; as, "It is more blessed 
to give than to receive." — " How could I do else than obey?" 

/ 



192 RULE XVII. — NOTES. 

8. There is generally an ellipsis in the clause connected mth a 
preceding clause by as or than. In supplying the ellipsis, the 
second clause should correspond in construction with the first ; as, 
"He is farther advanced than I {am advanced) J 7 — "He is as good 
as his word (is good)." 

In consequence of the ellipsis, than is sometimes incorrectly followed 
by a pronoun in the objective case ; as, " Than whom [who sat], Satan 
except, none higher sat." — " They suffered more than us\we suffered] ." 

9. As should not be used for who, whom, or which, or for thai 
(whether a conj. or a relative) : thus, " I know the man as witnessed 
the affair," should be, "I know the man who, etc." — "He said as 
he would come," should be, " He said that he would come." 

By ellipsis, as seems to have the force of a relative pronoun after 
such, as many, so many, as much, etc.? as, " He reads such books as 
he can get." 

It is better to supply the ellipsis and to parse as as a conjunction: 
thus, " He reads such books as (those are which) he can get." 

As is sometimes used simply to connect words which are in 
apposition ; as, "He appeared in the play as Hamlet." 

10. After the verbs doubt, fear, etc., whether should not be used 
for if; — nor should but, but that, or lest, be used for that : thus, " I 
doubt whether he will come to-morrow," should be, " I doubt if, etc. ;" 
— "He was afraid lest you would fail," should be, "He was afraid 
that you would fail." 

11. When words or clauses are connected by correlatives, care 
must be taken to use those which correspond with each other : thus. 

Both — and ; as, " Observe the rules both here and elsewhere." 
Either — or ; as, " He is either foolish or insane." 
Neither — nor ; as, " He would neither assent nor deny." 
Not only — but also ; as, "Not only safety but also justice required 
his death." 

Though — yet ; as, " Though mild in manner, yet firm in principle." 
Whether — or; as, " He could not decide whether to go or to remain." 
As (adv.) — as (conj.) express equality when used with an adjec- 
tive or an adverb ; as, " The accomplice is as bad as the thief." 

As (conj.) — so (conj.) express equality or proportion when used 
with two verbs ; as, "As cold water (is) to the thirsty soul, so is 
good news from a far country." 

So (adv.) — as (conj.) deny equality when used with an adjective 
or an adverb ; as, "You were not so fortunate as I." 

So (adv.) — as (conj.) with an adjective or an adverb express a 
limited comparison; as, "Be so kind as to read this letter," 



HULE XVII. — EXERCISES. 193 

So (adv.) — that (conj.) express a consequence when followed by 
a finite verb ; as, " So live, that you may not fear to die." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply tho rule or 
the note for each correction : — 

MOD ■ L 1. — " He had little more money but that earned by his labor." 
This sentence is incorrect, because but is improperly used for than after the 
comparative more; but, according to Note under llule XVIL, "Than is used 
to connect, etc." Therefore but should be than, and the sentence should be, 
"He had little more money than that earned by his labor." 

2. — "lie is not nearly as energetic as his friend." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the adverb as is used as the correlative 
of as to deny equality; but, according to Note under Rule XVIL, "When 
words or clauses are connected, etc. So (adv.) — as (conj.) deny equality 
when used with an adjective or an adverb." Therefore as should be so, and 
the sentence should be, "He is not nearly so energetic as his friend." 

3. — " lie has been in no high position, yet commands the respect of all." 

This sentence is incorrect, because has been and commands, which are con- 
nected by the conjunction yet, have but one nominative mentioned, although 
they differ in form; but, according to Note under Rule XVIL, "Verbs con- 
nected require a subject mentioned for each, if they differ, etc." Therefore 
he should be repeated before the verb commands, and the sentence should be, 
"He has been in no high position, yet ho commands the respect of all." 

1. Neither threats or entreaties was sufficient to turn him from his purpose, 
2. The pupils read well, but will not study diligent, nor listen attentively to 
3. He was much better acquainted with that section of tho 
country m>r any of hia companions. 4. He has not fulfilled his engagement 
with that was expected. 5. I always have and always shall 

be of the opinion that the fault was his only. 6. Wisdom and honesty is as 
valuable, and even as choico silver. 7. These books are equal, if 

cttcr, than those. 8. Savages have little else but the rudest implements 
for cultivation. 9. The boldness of the ignorant is as great, and greater, 
than that of the wise. 10. Who is so thoughtless that dare attempt this 
act? 11. - not U clearly I U it Bhonld be. 

12. Take to heart one maxim which I always have observed, and ever 
shall; re bnt what ii i 13. We very much 

• all nations. 14. So 
| arrange your d ie little things of life may not be neglected. 15. To 

■ the worst kind of hypocrisy* 
hom he loi iwered, "My brother." 17. To 

17 
t 



194 KULE XVII. — EXERCISES. 

get our clothing wet, and neglecting to change them, is a som je of many 
diseases. 18. The phalanx of the Greeks were not considered as effective as 
the legion of the Romans. 19. It is just so bad to act a lie as to tell one. 
20. The witness had no other but hearsay evidence to give. 21. Always be 
as candid as to admit a fault. 22. The rules were so obscure as they required 
a great deal of explanation. 23. Endeavor to assist such persons that need 
your assistance. 24. He not only built the house, but lived in it many years 
25. Few have been so fortunate as our friend. 26. As far as I know, he never 
fulfilled his promise. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences :— - 

Model 1. — " James reads and writes." 

And. — Reads and writes. — "And" is a conjunction, and connects the two 
verbs reads and xcrites, between which it is placed, according to Rule XVII. 
"A conjunction connects, etc." 

2. — " Government is necessary to ensure safety and to establish justice." 
And. — To ensure safety and to establish justice. — "And" is a conjunction, 

and connects the two phrases, to ensure safety, and to establish justice, 

between which it is placed, according to Rule XVII. 

3. — " If necessary, I will accompany you." 

If. — I will accompany you if (it is) necessary. — "If" is a conjunction, and 
connects the two parts of a sentence (clauses), I will accompany you and (it is) 
necessary, between which it is placed, according to Rule XVII. 

4. — "Both the time and the occasion were unsuitable." 

Both. — Both time (and) occasion. — "Both" is the correlative of an d, and 
with and connects the two nouns time and occasion, according to Rule XVII. 

And.— (Both) time and occasion. — " And" is the correlative of both, and 
with it connects the two nouns, time and occasion, according to Rule XVII. 

1. The hills, as in the old scriptures they are called, are, indeed, everlasting. 
2. As we still feel in our nerves the motion of the sea after we have planted 
our feet on the firm land, so the crests and hollows of the solid globe continue 
to make themselves felt in our mind. 3. We grow to love a country as we 
grow to love a person, because we have there exercised our faculty of loving. 
4. Every tree and every flower has something more than its own beauty, 
whether it grows in the shadow, or in the light of the glorious mountains. 5. 
Since the majority of persons act from impulse much more than from prin- 
ciple, men are neither so good nor so bad as we are apt to think them. 6. 
Education not only elevates the nature of him who hath it, but also of those 
with whom he associates. 

7. We strive as hard to hide our hearts from ourselves as from others, and 



RULE XVIII. — INTERJECTIONS — GENERAL RULE. *95 

always with more success; for in deciding upon our own case, wo arc judge, 
jury, and executioner. 8. If a man take delight in idle argumentation, ho 
will be able to combat with BOphists, hut he will never know how to live with 
men. 9. Though the wrongs of others strike you to the quick, yet with your 
■n take part against your fury. 10. A king may bo a tool, a thing 
of straw; but if he serves to frighten our enemies, and to secure our property, 
he answers a purpose : a scarecrow is a tiling of straw, yet it protects the corn. 

RULE XVIII. — INTERJECTIONS. 

An interjection has no grammatical dependence upon any 

other word. 

NOTES. 

1. An interjection may be followed by a pronoun in the possessive 
or in the objective case; as, "Omy!" — "Ah me!" In such ex- 
pressions the case of the pronoun is determined by some word under- 
stood: thus, "0 my fate!" — "Ah! pity me." 

2. Another part of speech seems sometimes to be used as an 
interjection; as, "Strange!" — "Back! false fugitive!" Such ex- 
pressions are usually elliptical: thus, "(It is) strange!" — "(Go) 
baik! false fugitive!" 

Exercise. — Parse the interjections in the following sentences: — 

Mode l. — " that those lips had language !" 

0. — " 0" is an interjection ; it has no dependence upon any other word, 
according to Rule XVIIL, "An interjection has, etc." 

1. Ah! what a sight was this! 2. Hark! hark! the lark at heaven's gate 
Hks. 3. What! wouldst thou have a serpent sting thee twice? 4. Oh! 
sailor-boy, peace to thy soul. 5. Ha! laughest thou, Lochiel, my vision to 
scorn? 6. that I had wings like a dove! 

GENERAL RULE. 

In the expression of thought, those forms and usages 

of language should be employed which will best express 

the meaning intended. 

NOTES. 

1. Every verb should be used with its appropriate form and moan- 
ing: thus. "Reset motionless," should be, "He*oi motionless;' 1 — 
,**Th» re overflown [overflowed] for miles." 

The verbs most frequently misused one for another, are dare (in- 
trant), for dare (trans.); flee, for fly; lay, for lie; learn, for teach; 
raise, for rise; set, for sit; and the auxiliary shall for will. 



1 



196 GENERAL RULE — NOTES — EXERCISES. 

2. In the arrangement of verbs in connected clauses, the proper 
relation of time should be observed: thus, " The train started before 
we arrived/' should be, " The train had started before we arrived;" 
— " The boat started after we had arrived" — not," The boat started 
after we arrived. 77 

Care should be taken to use that tense of every verb which will 
denote accurately the relative time of an action, a being, or a state : 
thus, " I said, last week, that the event would happen," — not, " I 
have said , etc. ;" — " Ye will not come unto me that ye might have 
life," should be, " — that ye may have life." 

3. A verb in the subjunctive mode, present tense, should be used 
to express a future contingency; as, " Though he slay me, yet will I 
trust in him." — " If it rain to-morrow, I will remain at home." 

A verb in the subjunctive mode, past tense, is used to express 
doubt, uncertainty, or a supposition, in which definite time is not 
expressed; as, "If the decision were just, I would not complain." 

Lest and that succeeding the imperative mode, should be followed 
by a verb in the subjunctive mode; as "Govern well thy appetite, 
lest sin surprise thee." 

When the contingency is regarded as certain, or as probable, a 
verb in the indicative mode is used; as, "If the decision was just, 
there was no cause of complaint." — " If it rains, do not go now." 

4. Such expressions as had rather, had better, had like, had ought, 
had as lief, though in common use, are ungrammatical, and should 
be avoided: thus, "I had like to have missed the chance," should 
be, " I almost missed the chance." 

Exercise. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " The officers appointed to enforce the law were attacked and 
compelled to fly." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb to fly, meaning to soar (as 
with wings), is used instead of to flee, meaning to hasten (as from danger) ; 
but, according to Note under General Rule, " Every verb should be used, etc." 
Therefore fly should be flee, and the sentence should be, "The officers ap- 
pointed to enforce the law were attacked and compelled to flee." 

2. — "When Bayard Taylor returned to America, he visited nearly all the 
countries in the Old World." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb visited expresses siuply past 
time; but, according to Note under General Rule, "In the arrangement of 
verbs in connected clauses, etc." Therefore visited, which is the past tense 
of the verb to visit, should be had visited, the past perfect tense, which ex- 



GENERAL, RULE — EXERCISES. 197 

presses past time previous to some other past time; and the sentence should 
be, " When Bayard Taylor returned to America, he had visited, etc." 

3. — " I had as lief Dot be, as live to be, etc." 

This seuteuce is iueorre'ct (or inelegant), because the auxiliary had is un- 
grammatically used as the sign of the past tense of the verb to be in the po- 
tential mode. But, according to Notes under General Rule, " Every verb 
should be used, etc.," and " Such expressions as had rather, etc." Therefore 
had should be would, and the sentence shoirld be, "I would as lief > or will- 
ingly) not be, as live to be, etc." 

4. — " A robbery or a theft is the same in principle, but not in magnitude." 
This sentence is grammatically correct, but it does not express the mean- 
in:: intended, because a separation or choice is denoted by the use of the 
conjunction or, while the idea of addition or of similarity is suggested by 
the adjective same; but, according to General Rule, " In the expression of 
thought, etc." The meaning would be better expressed by the use of and 
for or, and by changing is to are to agree with its two nominatives, the nouns 
robbery and theft; and the sentence maybe, "A robbery and a theft are, etc." 

I. I am acquainted with all the circumstances thrs long time. 2. You may 
go now, but return as soon as you have finished your business. 3. The Par- 
liament had like to have been blown up by gunpowder. 4. A piece of char- 
coal or a diamond is proved, by chemical analysis, to contain the same pro- 
perties. 5. The Btorm increasing in violence, he dared not proceed further. 
6. He completed his work when we returned. 7. The priest, and infidel were 
disputing whether there was a God. 8. Neither would they be persuaded 
though one arose from the dead. 9. If any member absents himself, ho 
shall pay a fine. 10. It had been well for him if he had died before he com- 
mitted so foul a deed. 

II. No sovereign of France was beloved ever so much as Henry IV. 12. 
The winter sat in early, and was more than usually inclement. 13. In this 
qui* -^ nook he used frequently to set and gaze upon the landscape. 14. A 
pincer- is i imetimes very useful. 15. Give no more trouble than you can 
help. 16. Looking over the morning paper was seen an account of the damages 
done by the storm. 17. By laving too long in bed he Loll the opportunity to 
go. 18. I should be pleased if you will accompany me. 19. Having gained 
the prize, it soon lost its value. 20. All examples in which there is a single 
mistake must be performed anew. 

21. The sun sat in a cloud last evening. 22. He stepped apto the enraged 
'animal, and. placing the muzzle close to it- head, every spark of life was ex- 
shed by its discharge. 23. I will be lost, for nobody shall help me. 
24. When shall you leave for the country? 25. After they drank in the little 

H* 



198 GENERAL RULE — EXERCISES. 

stream, they reclined at its bank. 26. A matter so important had ought to 
have been attended to. 27. Unable to move, the soldier laid where he fell. 
28. It is difficult to learn some lads their lesson. 29. These baking powders 
are warranted to make the bread raise in a very short time. 30. that I 
was as in days gone by ! 31. If thou takest heed, then shalt thou prosper, 
32. All great errors are said to contain an important truth. 

General Exercise. — Parse each word, and analyze each sentence, 
in the following extracts : — 

1. Do not wait to strike until the iron is hot, but make it hot by striking. 
2. Persons who have the good sense to speak only what they know, have the 
reputation of knowing more than they communicate. 3. A history of events 
which never have happened, or a recital of facts which never occurred, may 
be more emphatically than euphoniously called a lie. 4. To observe unob- 
servedly shows the observer. 5. Politeness is like an air-cushion; there may 
be nothing in it, but it eases our jolts wonderfully. 6. How is it that evil 
has so mucfe more power than good to produce its effects, and to propagate 
its nature? — One drop of foul will pollute a whole cup of fair water; but one 
drop of fair water has no power appreciably to improve a cup of foul. 7. The 
same law which moulds a tear, preserves the earth a sphere, and guides them 
both in their courses. 

As the sudden flash of lightning will sometimes disclose what in the long 
blaze of noonday has escaped the beholder, so will conviction break unex- 
pectedly upon the human mind, from some slight but striking circumstance 
which comes with the irresistible force of unpremeditated truthfulness. 

Fair Pennsylvania! Than thy midland vales 
Lying 'twixt hills of green, and bound afar 
By billowy mountains rolling in the blue, 
No lovelier landscape meets the traveler's eye. 
There Labor sows and reaps his sure reward, 
And Peace and Plenty walk amid the glow 
And perfume of full garners. 

I could never believe that Providence had sent a few men into the world 
ready booted and spurred to ride, and millions ready saddled and bridled to 
be ridden. 

Sombre forests shed a melancholy grandeur over the useless magnificence 
of nature, and hid, in their deep shades, the rich soil which the sun had never 
warmed. No axe had leveled the giant progeny of the crowded groves, in 
which the fantastic forms of withered limbs, that had been blasted and riven 
by lightning, contrasted strangely with the verdant freshness of a younger 






GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 199 

growth cf branches. The wanton grape-vine, Beeming by its own power to 
have strung from the earth, and to have fastened its leafy coils on the top 
of the tallest forest-tree, swung in the air with every breeze, like the loosened 
shrouds of a ship. 

How beautiful this night! the balmiest sigh 

Which vernal zephyrs breathe in evening's car, 

Were discord to the speaking quietude 

That wraps this noiseless scene. Heaven's ebon vault, 

Studded with stars unutterably bright, 

Through which the moon's unclouded grandeur rolls, 

Seems like a canopy which Love has spread 

To curtain a sleeping world. 

GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

I. You and them have frequently committed the same offence. 2. I have 
heard from my brother, he who went to Colorado. 3. Those pupils are 
farther advanced than us. 4. John he may go and attend to the matter. 5. 
The affair was soon settled-, him being disposed of. 6. The note was dis- 
counted at the Farmers and Mechanics Bank. 7. The kings guard was com- 
posed of youths' from the noblest families. 8. He who was actually to blame 
thou should-t censure. 0. Who do you suppose the guilty party to be? 10. 

sort of shallow tricks are soon discovered. 

II. The eighth and ninth page was lost. 12. Having been set a task, ho 
commenced at it immediately. 13. You had better not have gone. 14. The 
snow laid on the ground all day. 15. The noblest kind of a shade-tree is 
the elm. 1G. He was expelled the institution by his misconduct. 17. He 
first spoke against, and then voted for, the bill. 18. Many a young pro- 
mising man, has been ruined with evil associations. 19. His uncle and him 
attended the same church. 20. Some who he considered friends proved to be 
his w >rst enemi 

21. When I rescued the child, he was in an horrible plight. 22. The 

name of the Deliverer of his Country was bestowed upon William Tell. 23. 

A constitution of the United States is our paramount law. 21. He attended 

the sale and bought an hammer and a hour-glass. 25. What easy comes, 

goes. 2G. Whether a man tries or no, he can never add nothing to his 

[e could not remember the book where the passage was found. 

>ch fine fruit growed as on the ninny side of this hill. 

{ 29. They seldom or ever accomplished what they undertook. 30. Alexander 

« the Great seem- I of a d< Bite for conquest which could not be 

grati*icd. 



200 GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

31. That edition has been exhausted many years ago, and none was pub- 
lished since. 32. You must handle them boxes with care, for they contain 
glass. 33. If you follow me, I will lead thee in wisdom's pleasant ways. 
34. Each of you shall have your share. 35. Every hour and every day have 
their appropriate duties. 36. The piece of ground was divided into lots 
twenty foot wide by one hundred deep. 37. Those kind of cherries are said 
to be very unwholesome. 38. No one but John and his friends were there. 
39. The greater his talents, the worser injury he is capable of inflicting. 40. 
I should esteem it a great favor, if you will grant my request. 

41. Two rivers unite at this point, Alleghany and Monongahela. 42. Do 
like I do, if you wish to succeed. 43. The child was directed to set at the 
table properly. 44. What else is such language but sheer nonsense? 45. A 
crevasse being formed, the country was overflown for miles. 46. He were 
well when I seen him last. 47. Us agreeing to the arrangement, quietness 
was again restored. 48. It was me which made the assertion, 49. Use a 
little wine for thine often infirmities. 50. If this system was carried out, 
study would be no more use. 

51. Beware of him who you know to be untruthful. 52. Me being an im- 
portant member and unable to attend, the meeting was adjourned. 53. The 
reason of him doing so was obvious. 54. Wars occurred in Madison and 
Polk's administration. 55. This style of architecture prevailed during the 
tenth and eleventh century. 56. Another and a wiser course was adopted. 
57. Being struck with lightning, the old huge elm failed down on the ground 
with a heavy crash. 58. He done all his work long before the time ap- 
pointed. 59. Bunyan seems not to have forsook his religion, although by 
the adhering to it he severely suffered. 60. The property was to be equally 
divided between the three children. 

61. The artist criticized his friend's (as he called him) production with much 
freedom. 62. I have been to New York last week. 63. Either of the lads are 
permitted to try for the prize. 64. If you are unwell, go and lay down. 65. 
If you will allow me time to consi ler of the matter, I will give you a intel- 
ligible answer. 66. Let us so ad that we are not accused for neglecting our 
duty. 67. How bitterly that medicine tasted ! 68. "Who is willing to risk his 
life in the cause?" he asked. Every man at once responded, "Me." 69. These 
examples present a better appearance than them. 70. The rich and poor, the 
old and young, here enter, but never return. 

71. A Christian is the highest style of a man. 72. Since this is the safer 
way, it is of course the more preferable. 73. Riches may confer influenoe 
upon its possessor, but will not purchase happiness. 74. His powers of endur- 
ance are much more inferior than what I supposed. 75. Either of them occu- 
pations s» it my abilities. 76. Having did the work satisfactorily, he received 



9 
GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 201 

re than what he was promised. 77. The witness seen the thief to enter tho 

use. 78. What a long train of difficulties often proceed from one false step 
in life! 79. Every sentence is the same or a composite of these. BO. The days 
of our childhood are often the most happiest oi' our lives. * 

81. Hard work is not congenial with his disposition. 82. His servants ye 
are to whom ye obey. S3. She can dance and s'rags very sweetly. 84. I can 
gather as many bushels as he has. 85. It is better to have a love for, than 
r. your teacher. 86. Milton's "Paradise Lost," of all his other works, is 
r. Doing of these things is forbidden. SS. lie that is studious 
I will reward. 89. The knowing ourselves is the highest wisdom. 90. Hiui 
that is a talebearer, all despise him. 

91. This goods was not iu the market before last spring. 92. The distin- 
guishing faculty of the man is the reason. 93. Tho colonel despatched a 
messenger for reinforcements, and them having arrived, the troops was 
enabled to maintain their position. 94. In preparing of this essay, I princi- 
pally have consulted Patton, Bancroft, and Ilildrcth's histories. 95. He had 
both studied Playfairs Euclid and Davies Legendre. 96. Both these rulers 
had vindicated humanity and civilization by his official acts. 97. Snow is 
melted easier than ice. 98. We need to scarce name him. 99. You came 
quick, now see if you can do the work prompt. 100. The alone object of his 
life was the making money as fast as he can. 

101. We are them who witnessed the whole affair. 102. The field yielded 
fifteen bushel to the acre. 103. Which is the most beautiful, the pink or ver- 
bena? 104. The fifth and sixth examples are incorrect. 105. Who did you 
apply to. and who did you find favorable? 106. If Caisar had not have 
crossed the Rubicon, Rome would still have fell. 107. Where have you lain 
your book? 108. Being diffident, she was afraid to come in the room. 109. 
How can this statement be reconciled to the facts? 110. A brief examination 
showed that he was a better mathematician than a grammarian. 

111. We will come, if it does not rain. 112. The man who you sent me 
for was left before I arrived. 113. Being obliged to walk a great distance, 
and the weather it being very cold, I was almost froze. 114. Those class 
of people arc ret] able. 115. Neither he nor I is prepared to answer. 

116. Between you and I, he is greatly mistaken. 117. A torn old pantaloons, 
stained by blood, was found. 118. Every one has, or will be informed of this 

oises. 1 10. Let each esteem other better than 
ship QOW lays at Race Street wharf. 

121. It i< difficult to clearly understand the author's meaning. 122. Mcn- 

:e where those words occur. L23. Seeing how the man was 

not guilty, the jud._ r e ordered his discharge. 12 1. The truth of his statemont 

it could never be made apparent. 125. How carefully your time should be 



202 GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SFNTAX. 

spent i'uring this most important ten years of your life! 126. The ne essity 
of some new method has been felt long. 127. It has recently been discovered 
that there were large salt-mines in Nevada. • 128. I have found an instance 
where this rule is not applicable. 129. This event occurred in the year 
when Washington died. 130. The greatest two means by which advancement 
and civilization is due, are inventions and discoveries. 

131. The nation who have oppressed them have been punished. 132. Who 
who knew the circumstances could withhold sympathy? 133. This few hours 
delay proved to be a serious loss. 134. If he have succeeded, it was through 
my assistance. 135. All things which live, must die. 136. Great bodies move 
slow. 137. I said as how I did not know. 138. The car of Time runs incessant. 

139. I was weighed the other day, and have found that I gained ten pound. 

140. The chapter where this subject is explained is well wrote. 

141. The soldier whom they imagined was killed, only had received a 
slight wound. 142. Whomsoever will, may drink of the water of life freely. 
143. The lady, her who sang so sweet last evening, will be here to-day. 144. 
Grant and Lee's armies were no doubt mutually pleased at the cessation 
of hostilities. 145. Will you permit him and I to go? 146. Sit thee down 
beneath this tree. 147. The name of a Greek became synonymous with all 
which was great among men. 148. No statement has been more universally 
admitted. 149. The farm consists of thirty eight acres, six of which is 
woods. 150. There is a large house at the foot of a high hill covered with a 
dense forest, which is four stories high. 

151. We had now gone a three days' journey across the plains, and did not 
see one living thing. 152. Another time and a place will be appointed. 153. 
He went away last Monday, since when I have not seen him. 154. Either 
of these three plans are feasible. 155. The cultivation of earth has been com- 
manded by God himself. 156. But I laughed, and telled her as how the 
other young lady had payed me. 157. The man that attends close to business 
will succeed. 158. Each acted agreeable to the dictates of their conscience. 
159. Mary's cousin's friend has gone home. 160. The ladies were of a blonde 
and brunette complexion. 

161. If gold was unknown, some other substance would take its place. 
162. The use of the mariners compass' was devised by an Italian by the 
name of Flavio Giorga. 163. I must have put the paper in my pocket by 
mistake, and drew it out carelessly, and thus lost them. 164. The gentleman 
which owns the farm is my uncle. 165. How pleasantly the garden looks 
after the shower! 166. An intelligent child of ten years old answered my 
question. 167. " It must be them," she cried, as the sound met her ear. 168. 
Although turf and wood will burn readily, it will not answer as well as coal 
does. 169. Td s>me, either from nature or by cultivation, this feeling is 



GENERAL EXERCISES TX FALSE SYNTAX. 203 

more strongly developed than of others. 170. The influence of surrounding 
circumstances in boyhood produce effects which last through a lifetime. 

171. Lost, an umbrella belonging to a gentleman, with a curiously carved 
ivory head. 172. Pride and vanity are akin : but the first is a failing of 
great, the last of little minds. 173. I will give you the most genteelest pail 
of stockings you e ret wore. 171. How this sight brings all the happy scenes 
to my mind of childhood and youth! 175. At the time of the accident the 
train was running at the rate of forty mile the hour. 170. The reason of 
an acting so do not clearly appear. 177. Whomever disobeys the com- 
mand will be ordered under arrest. 17S. The colonel with his regiment were 
captured at Antictara. 179. I intended to have went home early. 180. 
Either he or thou has been unjustly accused. 

181. Webster is dead — the statesman and orator are no more. 182. The 
stars seem to shine brighter in winter than in summer. 183. Conformable to 
his wishes, I had made preparations to have gone in the first steamer. 184. 
Gentlemen are requested to not smoke in the cabin. 185. Such questions 
are easier asked than answered. 186. He outdone all his companions who 
had went to college with him. 187. thee who sittest judge, decide my 
cause. 188. No one can do no more than him in the cause of religion. 189. 
I have seldom or ever seen so fine a display. 190. Every man, woman, and 
child were slain by the Indians. 

191. Alexandria became the most flourishing of any of the cities built by 
Alexander the Great. 192. The bank has began to retire its smaller notes 
from circulation. 193. They had came before I did. 194. The errata of his 
book was rectified as soon as possible. 195. He now looks cold upon his best 
frienxls. 196. Politeness gains friends among every class of society. 197. This 
supply is as much, if not more, than we need. 198. Benedict Arnold, who is 
another name for traitor, will always be contemned. 199. Mary is the fairest 
of her sisters. 200. Let some less commoner expression be used. 

201. I know not of no author seldom so read. 202. Whereas, we form 

part of this country, and being desirous of sharing in the privileges of its 

government, it is resolved. 203. No other means but these were aaed. 204. I 

have had as much, and even greater difficulties to contend with, than them. 

Both Charles, Thomas, and Willi. im are absent. 206. I will reward thee 

if you do your work well. 207. Come and abide thee under my roof to-night. 

find them gh.vo.;-' 209. My brother and me were dc- 

210. I bought the booh at my friend's .1 

jll. This is the I; wyer's, wh the other end of the rill 

212. I : • no fa >pe <»f him n 

>m one entering upon a profei rion to which he 
is not fitted. 214. Mason's and Dixon's line is already famous. 215. Every 



204 GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

tree is known by his fruit. 216. "Who who has a regard for virtue can coun- 
tenance such acts? 217. They chose he and I from among the number. 218. 
Him being safe, I am happy. 219. If he had have ordered it, we would have 
obeyed. 220. Do not forget to inquire after your aunt's and uncle's healths. 

221. The enjoying fortune's goods is more coveted than the winning them. 
222. She takes much pleasure in cultivating of flowers. 223. Caution and 
promptness are alike requisite; this in forming plans, and that in executing 
them. 224. Thee and thy money may perish together. 225. An art is offspring 
of the science. 226. They read the inscription upon his tomb, "A scholar and 
a soldier lies here." 227. To what ports did you touch on your voyage to 
China ? 228. It are those boys which have annoyed us. 229. His health, as 
well as his property, were lost. 230. The mob were noisy, but not desperate. 

231. Fifty head of cattle has perished in the flames. 232. Many a one 
have found this out to their sorrow. 233. I am the man who own this house. 
234. He is perished in his sins. 235. Blunt common sense was one of " Old 
Rough and Ready's," as he was called, prominent characteristics. 236. In the 
making many books there is no end. 237. He seen the man who had stole 
the watch. 238. The lad confessed that he done it. 239. Even a tyrant can 
not always act as he wishes to. 240. Steady perseverance, and not spas- 
modic effort, accomplish great results. 

241. The sceptre of* England, the goal of my ambition and the prize that 
I have risked everything for to secure, are now within my grasp. 242. 
Mathematics are a branch of education which are indispensable. 243. He 
had purchased a remarkable fine horse, with which he intended to have ridden 
to the city daily. 244. He stands firmly and is not to be moved easy from 
his position. 245. He was promised a large reward if he discovers the 
missing articles. 246. Many men are deserted from the army on this account. 
247. He can not write only, but also reads. 248. The circumstances where I 
found him have not been misrepresented. 249. He ranked the highest of 
any in his class. 250. If you and me set the example, the rest will follow. 

251. A problem being difficult should not make a scholar to despair. 252. 
The u Lives of the Poets" were written by Dr. Johnson. 253. I care not 
whether you like it or no, you never take no advice. 254. Arkwright was a 
inventor, not discoverer. 255. Only a little while ago, I were wishing you to 
have been here. 256. We were not sure as he would come. 257. His motives, 
as well as his gift, was despised. 258. He requested to be permitted to learn 
his brother the lesson. 259. This fellow sat himself up as our judge. 260. 
My opportunities have not been as favorable as yours. 

261. The flower-bearing plants are the most beautiful of all the others. 
262. By him carefully observing of these rules, he gained success. 263. The 
mob rarely listens to reason ,• they are swayed by passion alone. 264. There 



GENERAL EXERCISES IX FALSE SYNTAX. 205 

is another class of the carnivorous kind that hunt by the scent, and whom it 
is more difficult to escape. 265. "It is only me," said the frightened lad. 
266. A feeble senate and enervated people mark the decline of Roman great- 
ness. 2f>7. On either side of the river was the tree of life. 268. A theft or 
murder may be committed in the heart, before they are done by the hand^ 
26l>. How pleasant to have friends who we may rely on of all occasions! 270. 
A dog is regarded as a model of fidelity. 

271. By the increase in value of gold the price of all articles has greatly 
raised. 272. Wafted by the wind, twenty sail of vessels has come into port. 
273. I have written as many or more sentences than you have. 271. To eat, 
. to drink, and to sleep, is all which he can find time to attend to. 275. Each 
officer and each soldier were then separately examined. 276. Neither the 
lieutenants or the captain were responsible for the failure of the expedition. 
27 7. A Large collection embracing many valuable coins were offered for sale. 
They marched slow and deliberate, halting frequent for rest. 279. On 
his friend requesting to be informed, no answer was given. 2S0. Gentle 
reader, let you and I in like manner endeavor to improve our opportunities. 

281. This account is not as reliable as the other. 2S2. If thy hand or thy 
foot offend thee, cut them off and cast them from thee. 283. He is the very 
man as would suit us. 2S4. These books are as good, if not better, than 
them. 285. Neither horse or rider ever were seen. ,286. The facts are such 
' that when produced will astonish us. 2S7. If the town was left defenceless, 
it might be plundered. 2S8. His remark was that water always sought its 
level. 2S9. The Atlantic cable has not been laid, but is soon likely to. 290. 
What can be more preferable than virtue? 

29^. A large number of the most influential citizens were in favor of the 

measure. 2«.<2. He that honoreth me, I will honor. 293. Him and me could 

e. 294. When the morning came, all the chief priests and elders 

were gathered together. 295. There are a great variety of flowers. 21)6. 

I ?cn them two it is hard to decide, each being as good as another. 297. 

The more mild and gentle they are treated, the better is their disposition. 

!cms' are correctly performed, but Henrys' is full of 

lertain of succeeding, I would make the attempt. 

300. '. M '>th<-r but the house of <-■ 

301. Such a great work has been and Idom. 302. Jl<> is d 

very intelligent person, 1 don't think. 303. It red for a later I 

prove that the ear:h turned on its axis onee < tty-foui hours. 

re this day came roui. . place. 305. Be ye angry and 

, sin n . II" drank to e 

- u important. ught 

for, and after much difficulty found, the place. 309 This landscape u» a 

18 



206 GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

picture of BierstacL 310. Among these two plans there is no roo^i for 
choice. 

311. The campaign has been conducted in a different manner than what I 
feared. 312. The ship laid at anchor all night, but a gentle wind raising in 
the morning, we sat sail at seven o'clock. 313. Let us not only ourselves 
practice, but seek to inculcate in others a love for, the duties of hospitality. 
314. Let each perform their part, and all will be well. 315. The gentleman's, 
to say the least, conduct was disgraceful. 316. No pain, no sorrow, enter 
there. 317. They would neither come themselves nor allowed the rest to, 
318. Two weeks holiday were allowed to every clerk.'. 319. This question, 
like others, has a right and wrong side to it. 320. "A featherless biped" was 
Plato's definition of a man. 

321. The specimens you was pleased to send us, gives general satisfaction. 
322. The whole brigade with all its train were captured. 323. Such practices 
were not becoming one making the professions he has. 324. The philosophy 
is science of causes. 325. He is a better critic than an artist. 326. The 
seeking gold has impoverished more than it has enriched. 327. Good taste 
and fashion are often at variance; for this is founded upon the principle of 
fitness, that usually upon mere whim. 328. Who did I see but the very 
man ? 329. Whom do men say that I am ? 330. I should know it to be she 
by her signature. 

331. Him removed, we need no longer fear. 332. All were better qualified 
but him to fill the situation. 333. The well once yielded fifty barrel of oil a 
day. 334. Let us be careful to always speak the truth. 335. He is certainly 
as smooth a writer, if not more so, than Carlyle. 336. The ice is so strong 
and firm as you need not fear to pass over. 337. It is money moves the 
world. 338. What a beautiful flower ! Let me smell of it. 339. The com- 
pany were composed of one hundred men. 340. The people has risen in its 
might and swept away all which opposed it. 

341. This was a novelty to me, for I never witnessed such a scene before. 
342. The Board of Health have ordered that the sanitary regulations are 
strictly enforced. 343. He will not yield, though his life pays the penalty 
of his obstinacy. 344. Take heed to thy thoughts, lest thou sinnest with thy 
words. 345. O that there was some chance of success! 346. This is more 
uhan flesh and blood are able to endure. 347. This essay is James, the best 
scholar's of his class. 348. What was the motive and result of this move- 
ment? 349. A green small bag has been found. 350. I can not see but what 
thee is greatly in error. 

351. I have heard yesterday that you intended to travel in Europe this sum- 
mer. 352. He was publicly reprimanded that the others may take warning. 
353. Wa3 it a suitable occasion, I might a tale unfold. 354. If he know the 



GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 207 

rule, why docs ho ask? 355. Though he be descended from a noble father, 
he has disgraced his name. 356. Where weri thou going when r met you? 
357. Him proving faithless, who could they trust? 858. Please excuse Theo- 
dore's lateness. 359. I bade him to return without delay. 360. Whom do you 
think that I am ? 

361. The Emperor of Russia is styled a Czar. 362. The event happened 
in Mary or Elizabeth's reign, I do not remember which. 363. His abilities 
as a poet's are of the highest order. 364. The Emperor of France's policy is 
at present a peaceable one. 365. Doinhey's and Son's establishment is now 
1. 366. His health was injured b} r him so diligently applying himself. 
367. The army move at the rate of twenty mile a day. 368. He is not as 
strict as he professes to be. 369. To profess to be sincere, and at the same 
time acting differently, is the mark of a degraded mind. 370. The fact 
of it being them who are guilty is almost incredible. 

371. A soon termination of the troubles are anxiously looked for. 372. He 
acted conformable to the rules adopted for the governing the school. 373. 
His audience, who were composed of persons of intelligence, heartily ap- 
plauded him. 37 i. The ruins of the Coliseum show it to be a very extensive 
building. 375. His disciples showed him of all these things. 376. There are 
more inhabitants in London than in any city in England. 377. The com- 
munity were more than usually excited. 378. All the while the animal ap- 
proached itself nearer and nearer. 379. How freshly the lawn looks after 
the rain ! 380. After I visit Washington, I will return home. - 

381. The three first specimens were selected, the three next reserved for 
future trial, and the two last unanimously rejected. 382. I have not, and 
never" can consent to such a proposal. 3S3. He has no more to recommend 
htm besides his appearance. 384. He was at last made feel by bitter experi- 
ence that vice produced misery. 385. The work was finished sooner than 1 
tted it to have been. 386. This is one of those matters which is usually 
neglected. 387. If thou have the power, have mercy on us and save us. 
388. The aboriginal race of this land arc fast melting away. 3S9. The dead 
and wounded were left on the field. 390. I had rather not accept the ap- 
pointment on these terms. 

. 391. Charles is one whom if you do not encourage him, he becomes easily 

tly in London, whore I have Been '\'< nnys< n. ! ; • 
wh<> is poet-lani . If the we M»rmy to-monow. we will defer 

thf c leived Buob a wonnd 

ind li .'>. They attentively listened while he explained the reason of 

fco seldom an occurre;. i'.»r he hath made him to be sin tot us, who 

knew no sin. 397. Knowing as you was his friend, ho hoped to have ob- 
ained a favorable responie. 



208 PUNCTUATION. 



PUNCTUATION. 



Punctuation treats of the points or marks wlii.li are 
used in writing and printing. 

Marks are principally employed to divide written or printed dis- 
course into sentences, and sentences into parts, in order to render 
the meaning more intelligible. 

Marks are also employed in connection with sentences, words, 
letters, and figures, for other uses. 

The principal marks are the following : — 
Period, • 

Interrogation Point, ? 



Exclamation Point, ! 
Colon, : 

Brackets, [ ] 



Semicolon, 



Comma, , 

Dash, — 

Curves, ( ) 



THE PERIOD. 

The Period denotes a full stop, or the greatest degree 
of separation. 

I. A period must be placed at the end of every declarative 
or every imperative sentence, whether simple, complex, or 
compound. 

Examples. — " The noblest vengeance is to forgive." — " Do as I 
command you." — " Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy 
spoken word is master of thee." 

The members of a compound sentence may be fully separated by 
the use of the period in place of a colon or a semicolon : thus, in the 
last example: — "Of thy unspoken word thou art master. Thy 
spoken word is master of thee." 

II. A period must be placed at the end of every abbre- 
viated word; as, Dr. for doctor; N. Y. for New York; nom. 
for nominative. 

If the abbreviated word occurs at the close of a full sentence, 
one period is sufficient to denote both the abbreviation and the end 
of the sentence; as, "Harrisburg is the capital of Pens." 



PUNCTUATION. 209 

Some abbreviations have by common usage become words, and 

therefore require no period at the end of them; i b, Will Shakspeare; 
Tom Moore. 

A period must be placed at the end of headings, titles, and other 
expressions, used alone and equivalent to abbreviated declarative 
sentences; as. Normal Arithmetic. — Punctuation. — Jones and Sons. 

A period is also used after figures and letters employed as figures, 
when successive facts or particulars are stated in order. Such are 
the figures used in numbering paragraphs. 

THE INTERROGATION POINT. 

The Interrogation Point denotes that a question is asked, 
and, as a separating point, marks a full or a partial stop. 

The interrogation point must be placed at the end of 
every sentence, member, or clause, which contains a com- 
plete direct question. 

amples. — "Where did you find your book?" — "If he go, will 
you accompany him? for I must stay." — " 'Am I safe now?' he 
ly asked." 
When several questions are contained in one sentence, and the 
meaning is not complete till the last is asked, the interrogation point 
is used only at the end; as, " Shall my neighbors be aroused, shall 
my friends be anxious, and I remain indifferent?" 

A senteuce which refers to a question, without asking it, is not 
directly interrogative, and must not be closed with an interrogation 
point; as, "I asked him where he found his book." 

THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 

The Exclamation Point denotes that one word or more 
are used in exclamation, and, as a separating point, often 
marks a full stop. 

An exclamation point must be placed at the end of every 
sentence, member, phrase, or word, used in exclamation or 
in earnest address. 

Examples. — "Ala-! what hourly dangers rise!" — ''To arms! they 
c-me! tin- Greek I the 1 1 

The exclamation poinl immediately after interjections 

which nth other word* ; :i<, "FU on thee!'' 

is never in ly followed by an exclamation point; as, K 

city of our Gu<l 1" 

18* 



210 PUNCTUATION. 

THE COLON. 

The Colon denotes a degree of separation less than that 
shown by the period, and greater than that indicated by 
the semicolon. 

I. A colon- may be placed between the extended mem- 
bers of a compound sentence, when they are not connected 
by conjunctions mentioned, or when their parts are sepa- 
rated by semicolons and commas. 

Examples. — " In the Bible the body is said to be more than the 
raiment, but the opinion now-a-days seems to be, that the raiment is 
more than the body: a great many people, it would seem, read this 
text, as they do others, Hebrew-wise, that is, backward." 

"We must get out of the shadow of an object to see it; we must 
recede from it, to comprehend it: so we must compare the present 
with all our past impressions, if we would make out the truth which 
is common to them all." 

II. A colon must be placed at the end of the expressions 
as follows, the following, thus, these, these words, etc., or of 
parts containing these or their equivalents, when they intro- 
duce a series of particulars, or a direct quotation. 

Examples. — " The means devised by man to communicate his 
thoughts and feelings are the following : gestures, inarticulate sounds, 
spoken language, and written language." 

" Mr. Webster supposes John Adams to have spoken these words: 
* Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my 
heart to this vote/ " 

In introducing a direct quotation of considerable length, the ex- 
pressions asfolloivs, etc., are often omitted; as, " He arose and said: 
' Mr. Chairman, I propose, etc.' " 

The colon is less used than formerly, a period or a semicolon 
taking its place. 

THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon denotes a degree of separation less than 
that shown by the colon, and greater than that indicated 
by a comma. 

I. A semicolon must be placed between the members 
of a compound sentence when the cornection is closer than 



PUNCTUATION. 211 

that which would require a colon, especially Then the con- 
junctions are omitted. 

imples. — " Brutes are governed by instinct; man, by his reason- 
faculties." — "His confidence in the success of his enterprise was 
not the idle dream of a mere enthusiast; it was founded in reason 
nnd based upon science." 

When the members are short and connected by conjunctions, n 
comma is usually the separating point; as, "The sword is mighty, 
but the pen is mightier." 

II. A semicolon is used in a complex sentence, to sepa- 
rate successive clauses having a common dependence upon 
one or more principal clauses. 

ExampU . — " If I have laid down my premises correctly; if I have 
irly; if I have proved my assertions; how can you 
withhold your assent?" 

III. A semicolon must be placed at the end of a state- 
ment, which, without any intervening word, is followed by 
the particulars referred to, when these particulars are sepa- 
rated by commas. 

Example. — "Mankind is divided into five races; the Caucasian, 
the M q, the Ethiopian, the Malay, and the American.-" 

Instead of the semicolon, some authors here use the colon. 

IV. A semicolon must be placed before as } when it is 
followed by an illustration. 

Example. — " That often means in order that: as, ' Live virtuously 
that you may die happy/ ;; 

THE COMMA. 

The Comma denotes the shortest pause, or the least 
degree of separation. 

It is used, in general, to set off those parts of sentences, 
which, though closely connected, still need some point 
after them to mark the pauses or interruptions in the flow 
of words. 

I. A comma i- used to separate the short members of 
compound sentences, when the members are onnected by 
conjunction.-. 



212 PUNCTUATION. 

Example.—" There was a pause of death-like stillness a.id the 
bold heart of Macpherson grew faint." 

II. A comma is used to separate the clauses of complex 
sentences, unless the connection is very close, and the quali- 
fying clause or clauses are very short. 

Examples. — " Nothing was heard save the plash of the agitated 
lake, as it beat up against the black rocks which girt it in." — " The 
ships were ordered to lie to, lest they should run upon rocks." 

III. Inverted (or transposed) clauses, phrases, and ad- 
juncts, must usually be set off by commas. 

Examples. — " When he came, I know not." — " Of all vices, im- 
purity is one of the most detestable." 

"When the connection is very close, the inverted phrase is not thus 
set off; as, "In Rome he dwelt." 

IV. Parenthetical clauses, phrases, adjuncts, and words, 
that is, those clauses, etc. which occur between other parts 
and interrupt the connection, must be set off by commas. 

Examples. — "The clergy, as it has been before remarked, were 
the most intelligent and wealthy portion of the population." — "We 
may, generally speaking, depend upon this rule." — "This movement 
was, icithout doubt, demanded by public opinion." — " I shall, never- 
theless, make good my promise." ' • 

Qualifying phrases and adjuncts, neither inverted nor paren- 
thetical, may be set off by commas, when not very closely connected, 
for the sake of prominence or emphasis; as, "These seamen had 
become habituated to the storms of the ocean, by battling tempests in 
the Northern seas around Iceland, in their yearly fishing excursions." 

A relative clause closely connected is not usually separated from 
the word which it qualifies; as, " The men who persevere, are the 
men who succeed." 

V. Similar parts of speech, or similar expressions con- 
stituting a series, must be separated by commas. 

Examples. — " A great mind, a great heart, a great orator, and a 
great career, have been consigned to history." — " He was a man 
patient, sober, honest, and industrious." 

VI. A complex subject consisting of several parts 
which require commas between them, or one ending with 
a verb, must be separated from its predicate by a comma. 



rUXOTCATION. 213 

Examp'es. — "Ranges and groups of lofty nountains, (loop val- 
leys, throigh which rush rapid streams, and numberless lakes set 
in the midst of grand old forests, are the characteristics of this 
primitive region." — "Whatever is. is right." 

Whop, a clause introduced by that, a quoted sentence, or a Long 
infinitive phrase, is used as a subject, it must he set off from its 
predicate. 

Kx'ihH' 1 '*. — "That peace and righteousness shall ultimately pre- 
vail over ail the earth, is the belief of every pious heart." — " * Know 
thyself,' was the response of the Delphic Oracle." — "To seal their 
testimony to the truth with the surrender of their lives, was often 
the lot ^ the early Christians." 

Words taken in pairs must have a comma after each pair. 

Example. — "The young and the old, the rich and the poor, the 
nd the foolish, here meet on a common level." 

VII. When a verb is omitted to avoid repetition, a 
comma takes its place. 

Example. — " Reading makes a full man ; conversation, a ready 
man ; and writing, an exact man/' 

VIII. Words or clauses denoting opposition of mean- 
ing, or contrast, must be separated by commas. 

— "Return a kindness, not an injury." — "Brief, but 
deci-ive, was the struggle." — "Did he act w r isely, or unwisely?" 

rrelative clauses, unless very short, are usually set off by 
comma-, but words, phrases, or short clauses connected by than, are 
Dot Bet "ff, unless for the sake of emphasis; as, "The farther we 
advanced into the interior, the greater mr difficulties became." — 
u Nothing is clearer than the truth of this statement." 

IX. An appositional phrase must be set off by commas 
from the word or the words which it qualifies. 

nnple. — '"Cicero, the great Roman orator, was slain to gratify 
the revenue of Ant my." 

'\<>n, excopt with the pronoun 7, are not set off by 
com: vras pursued and slain." — " We con- 

ire merciful." — "I, James Brown, mnly affirm." 

X. The following are also Bet oil* by commas: — 

1. Words or phrases used i lently; a-, "Myfriend, you 

. farewell." — "To say flu least, it was unfair," 

•lute phi iUing, her disposition 

became more ind more gloomy." 



214 PUNCTUATION. 

3. An equivalent word or expression introduced by or; as, " Arith- 
metic, or the science of numbers, was introduced into Europe by 
the Arabians." 

4. Eepcated words or phrases; as, "'Treason, treason, treason, 9 re- 
echoed from every part of the house." 

5. A clause introducing a short quotation, ending it, or separating 
its parts ; as, "' Truth/ said the speaker, 'must be our sole aim/" 

6. Whatever clause, phrase, or word would occasion ambiguity, 
if not set off by a comma ; as, " I have seven brave sons, and 
daughters." 

[The limits of this work prevent the insertion of exercises upon the us© 
cf the points just explained. 

For exercises, recourse must be had to suitable passages from authors, or 
to the extracts from their works, contained in the various " Readers" in use 
in our schools. These passages should be dictated to the pupils, and the 
latter should be required to insert the appropriate points.] 

THE DASH. 

The Dasll is used to denote a change in the construction 
of a sentence, or in its meaning, — an interruption, or a 
hesitation. 

Examples. — "Honor — 'tis an empty bubble." — "I visited him 
yesterday — what a sight !" — "If we go— why, then — but we will 
talk of that anon ; — speak on." — " Have mercy on me ! I— I— I'll 
confess it all." 

The dash is also used to set off words and clauses used paren- 
thetically ; as, " I have seen thousands — or, more properly, tens of 
thousands — feeding together on the rich grass of the prairies." 

The dash is often placed after other points to give greater promi- 
nence to the separation denoted by them. 

CUEVES. 

Curves, or parenthesis marks, are used to enclose a word, 
a phrase, or a clause, either explanatory or suggested by 
the main idea, which is introduced in such a way as not to 
interrupt the connection of the parts of the sentence. 

Examples. — " The disposition of our most eminent and most 
virtuous men (alas ! that it should be so) to keep aloof from public 
affairs, is a serious fact." — " The bright moon poured in her light on 



PUNCTUATION. 215 

tomb and monument, on pillar, wall, and arch, and n. st of all (it 
seemed to them) upon her quiet grave." 

The parts which are enclosed by curves must be punctuated like 
others; but usuallyno point is placed before the latter curve, unless 
the words form a full sentence, or require an exclamation or an 
Interrogation mark. 

Curves are not employed so much as formerly: dashes take their 
place; as, "The great northern kingdoms of Europe — Russia, Den- 
mark, Sweden, and Norway — did not then attract much attention." 

BRACKETS. 

Brackets are used to enclose words necessary to explain 
a preceding word or sentence, or to correct an error. 

ample*. — "The finder [James] has been rewarded." — "WSsh- 
rn on the twenty-second [the eleventh, according to old 

style] day of February, 1732.'' — " lie said how [that] he would not dis- 
appoint us. " 

OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING. 

The Apostrophe ( 9 ) is used to denote the omission of a letter or 
of letters ; as, TU, for I will ; — e'er, for ever. 

The apostmphe is also used to denote the possessive case of nouns, 
bow that certain words are used as verbs; and with s to form 
the plural of letters, figures, or signs, taken as nouns; as, "JSgypfs 
queen ;'' — " lie if s and bid's." — " He makes his i's and^'s alike." 

The Quotation Marks ( " " ) are used to enclose the exact words 
quoted from another speaker or writer. 

Example. — "Let these words be remembered: ' Touch not, taste 
not, handle not.'" 

A quotation within a quotation must be enclosed by single marks. 

The Hyphen ( -) is used to unite the words which constitute the 
a compound word aot regarded as a permanent compound; 

Ir if unit*' the words which maybe temporarily taken 

r : -,-br-hi ,//' nted friend/ 1 
krk the division of a word into its syllal 
i-bil-i-ty. 
The Ellipsis Marks ( — ),(***) are n 

S: as, C ' ;/. t '■ K% ■' : L I P n 

The Caret (A) is used in manuscript to show tint something 

I in its proper pla Or in the margin. 

i 



216 PUNCTUATION — CAPITAL LETTERS. 

The Brace ( ,— *— * ) is used to connect two or more different worda 
or expressions with one common term. 

The Ditto, or Double Comma ( „ ), is used instead of repeating the 
word or the words above it. 

The Illdes ( $^ ) points to something special or remarkable. 

The Asterism ( \* ) directs attention to a particular passage. 

The Section ( \ ) denotes a division of a book. 

The Paragraph ( \ ) denotes the beginning of a new subject. This 
mark is now rarely used in books. The beginning of a new subject 
is now shown by setting a new line back from the margin. 

The Cedilla is a mark placed under the letter c (p), to show that 
it is to be sounded soft like s ; as, facade. 

The Tilde is a mark placed over the letter n (ft), to show that the 
following vowel sound is to be preceded by that of y; as, carton. 

The Vowel Marks are the following : — 

The Dissresis ( ** ), placed over the latter of two vowels to denote 
that they are separated ; as, aerial. 

The Macron ( - ), placed over a vowel to denote that it has a long 
sound ; as, over. 

The Breve ( v ), placed over a vowel to denote that it has a short 
sound; as, cover. 

The Accents are the following: — 

The Acute (/"), used to mark an accented syllable; as, ac'cent; 
and to denote when the voice should rise in tone. 

The Grave ( x ), denoting the falling of the voice. 

The Circumflex ( >v ), denoting that the voice must both rise and 
fall in pronouncing the same syllable. 

The Asterisk ( * ), the Dagger ( t ), the Double Dagger ( t ), and the 
Parallel ( || ), are used as marks of reference; also the Section ( ? ), 
and the Paragraph ( ft ), — and small letters and figures, which, when 
thus used, are called superiors. 

For other marks and their uses, dictionaries must be consulted, 

CAPITAL LETTEES. 
Most words begin with small letters; but the following 
must commence with capitals : — 

1. The first word of every sentence. 

2. The first word of every line of poetry. 

3. Proper names, and words derived from them ; as, America, Ame- 
rican ; Dane, Danish; Winfield Scott; Broadioay. 



FIGURES. 217 

4. All names applied to the Deity; as, God; t\e Supreme Ruler; 
Che Holy Spirit ; Providence. 

5. Common names directly personified; as, " Cease, rude Winter." 

6. Words used as titles of office or honor, when prefixed to proper 
names; as, Chief Justice Chase; General Grant. 

7. The first word of a direct quotation; as, " Remember and 
practise this precept: * Love thy neighbor as thyself/ n 

8. Words or expressions denoting remarkable events, or things 
long celebrated; as, the Reformation; the Golden Age; the Magna 
Chart a; the Norman Conquest. 

9. When books are mentioned, the principal words in their titles; 
as, Swift* Tale of a Tub. 

The pronoun /, and the interjection 0, are always capitals. 
Title-pages, heads of chapters and pages, side titles, etc., are 
usually composed wholly of capitals. 



FIGURES. 



A Figure, in grammar, is an intentional departure 
from the common mode of spelling, forming, constructing, 
or applying a word. 

CLASSES OP PIGUEES, 
Figures may be divided into four classes; — Figures of 
Orthography, Figures of Etymology, Figures of Syntax, 
and Figures of Rhetoric. 

FIGURES of orthography. 
A Figure of Orthography is an intentional departure from 
tli> i common mode of spelling a word. 

The figures of orthography are two; — Mimesis and Archaism. 
1 Mimesis is an imitation of the false pronunciation of a word by 
correspondent spelling; as, "Wall, 'twus wus 'n t'other — it nuver 
struck ohet." 

Archaism is the spelling of a word according to ancient c«age; 

In mytyme mypoore father was as diligent to teach metoshote 

learne anye other thynge, and so I thynke other menne did 

thvr children. M 

19 



218 FIGURES. 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

A Figure of Etymology is an intentional departure from 
the common mode of forming a word. 

The principal figures of etymology are eight ; — Aphaeresis, Pros- 
thesis, Syncope, Apocope, Paragoge, Diaeresis, Synaeresis, and 
Tmesis. 

1. Aphaeresis is the taking of a letter or of letters from the beginning 
of a word; as, 'bove, for above; y gan, for began; y neath, for beneath, 

2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a letter or of letters to a word ; as, 
adown, for down; beloved, for loved. 

3. Syncope is the taking of a letter or of letters from the middle 
of a word; as, e'er, for ever; ev'ry, for every; hap'ning, for happening. 

4. Apocope is the taking of a letter or of letters from the end of a 
word; as, tho\ for though; ope, for open; yon, for yonder. 

5. Paragoge is the suffixing of a syllable to a word; as, vasty, for 
vast; withouten, for without. 

6. Diaeresis is the separating of two vowels which might otherwise 
form a diphthong ; as cooperate, or co-operate; reincur, or re-incur. 

7. Synseresis is the blending or contracting of two syllables or 
words into one ; as, talk'st for talkest; thou'rt, for thou art. 

8. Tmesis is the separating of the parts of a compound word by 
the insertion of a word; as, To us ward; "On which side soever he 
turned." % 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A Figure of Syntax is an intentional departure from 

common usage in the grammatical construction of a word. 

The principal figures of syntax are five ; — Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Syl- 
lepsis, Hyperbaton, and Enallage. 

1. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to complete the sense 
and construction of other words; as, "Bring (to) me the book;" — 
" I knew (that) he would conie." 

Ellipsis applies to all the parts of speech, to phrases, and to clauses. 
By ellipsis needless repetition is avoided, and language is rendered 
more pleasing and forcible. 

2. Pleonasm is the use of more words than are absolutely necessary 
to express an idea; as, "I saw it with my own eyes." — "For the ; 
Egyptians, whom ye have seen to-day, ye shall see them no more, 
for ever." 



FIGURES. 219 

Pleonasm is often used to emphasise, to complete a lii. :-. of poetry, 

or to round a sentence. The improper use of it, however, weakens 
the force of expression, and is a great blemish. 

3. Syllepsis is the using of words according to the intended mean- 
ing, and not according to the literal signification: thus, when it is 

said, "He carried away captive the whole village, regardless of their 
supplications/ 1 " the whole village, w meaning all the inhabitants, is 

-represented by their and not by its, 

4. Hyperbaton, or Inversion, is the transposition of words, phrases, 
and clauses, from their natural order; as, "Of arms I sing," for, "I 
sing of arms/' — "As I command you, do/' for, "Do as I command 
you." 

5. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another, — princi- 
pally of an adjective for an adverb, or of one variation of a word for 
another: as, "As when the sun new risen." — "Let us instant go." — 
"Tending to wild," — for, "Tending to wildness ;" — " Thinks I to 
myself." 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional departure from 
common usage in the application of words, in order to im- 
part greater variety, strength, and beauty, to discourse. 

The principal figures of rhetoric are the following: — Simile, Meta- 
phor, Allegory, Personification, Metononiy, Synecdoche, Hyperbole, 
Apostrophe, Vision, Interrogation, Exclamation, Antithesis, Climax, 
Irony, Paralipsis, and Onomatopoeia. 

Some of these figures, namely, those which apply to words only, 
are called tropes (from a Greek word meaning a turn), because the 
word is turned from its usual application. 

1. A Simile is a direct comparison, commonly shown by the use 
of as, as — 50, or like ; as, " Be ye wise as serpents." — " Her hair was 
like the sunshine." — "As cold water to a thirsty soul, so is good news 
from a far country." 

2. A Metaphor is the applying of the name of one object to another 
on account of some resemblance between them ; as, " Thy word is a 
lamp unto my feet and a light unto my path." — "Nature was tC him 

A simile is converted into a metaphor by the omission of the term 

of comparison : on the other hand, a metaphor may become a simile 
by the use of like, etc. 



220 FIGURES. 

3. An Allegory is a succession of metaphors, or of sentences ccn* 
taining metaphorical language, the whole forming a narration of 
imaginary events, designed to exhibit and enforce some moral truth, 

Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress" is an extended allegory. Fables 
aud parables are short allegories. 

4. Personification is a figure by which inanimate objects, or inferior 
animals, are represented as having the qualities of persons ; as, 
"The raven cried to the crow, ' Avaunt, blackamoor V " — "While 
bright-eyed Science watches round." — " Has War trod o'er them with 
his foot of fire V* 

5. Metonomy is a change of names, or the use of the name of one 
object for that of another to which the former bears some relation. 

Thus, the name of the cause is used for that of the effect, or of the 
effect for that of the cause; of the container for that of the thing 
contained, etc. ; as, " Spare my gray hairs [old age]." — " The country 
[the people] responded to the call." — " Embroidered garments are 
mentioned in Homer [Homer's writings]" 

6. Synecdoche is the use of the name of the whole for that of a 
part, or of the name of a part for that of the whole ; as, " My son, 
give me thine heart-" — that is, "thy affections" — "Ten thousand 
fleets sweep over thee in vain." 

7. Hyperbole is a figure by which, to heighten the effect, much 
more is asserted than can be true ; as, " It is whiter than snow" — 

" That should move 
The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny." — 

"Your words, they rob the Hybla bees 
And leave them honeyless." 

8. Apostrophe is a sudden turning aside from the subject of 
thought or of discourse to address some person or thing ; as, " Oh, 
Judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts!" — "0 the depth of the 
riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God !" 

9. Vision is a figure which represents what is past, absent, or 
imaginary, as actually present ; as, 

" For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight, 
And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight." . 

10. Interrogation is a mode of questioning, used, not to seek in- 
formation, but rather to express a strong affirmation or denial ; as, 
" He that planted the ear, shall he not hear?" — " Can the fig-tree, 
my brethren, bear olive berries ? either a vine, figs ?" 



FIGURES. 221 

11. Exclamation is the sudden or unexpected expression of words 
denoting Btrong emotion ; as, " What a piece of* work is man ! How 
noble in reason ! How infinite in faculties !" 

12. Antithesis is the placing of opposite things, or thoughts, in 
contrast with each other, bo that the difference may be more clearly 
seen: as. "Man proposes, but God disposes." — "A soft answer 
turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger." 

13. Climas is the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses, so 
that there shall be gradual rising from the least to the greatest in 
importance ; as, " They fought, they bled, they died for freedom." — 
"Days, months, years, and ages, shall circle away." 

When the arrangement is such as shows a gradual decrease in 
Importance, the figure is called Anticlimax ; as, "Now if any man 
build upon this foundation gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, 
stubble; every man's work shall be made manifest." 

14. Irony is a mode of expression by which we are understood 
really to censure what we seem to approve or defend ; as, 

"For Brutus is an honorable man; 
So are they all honorable men." 

15. Paralipsis, or Omission, is the pretended omission on the part of 
the speaker or writer of that which he, at the same time, really 
mentions ; as, " I do not speak of my adversary's scandalous rapa- 
city : I take no notice of his brutal conduct ; I pass by his treachery 
and malice.' 

16. Onomatopoeia is a correspondence of sound with sense; as, 
/;, click, goes the clock ; clack, clack, goes the mill." — 

"Up the high hill he heaves a huge round stone." 

REMARKS. 

Many more figures than the foregoing could be named and defined, 

(were it leemed necessary. 
The use of figures, particularly of ellipsis, pleonasm, hyperbaton, 
enallage, and those dependent upon changes in the form3 of words, 
is mufh iriore common in poetry than in prose. 

Certain figures or modes of expression are allowable only in 
poetrv : it is the employment of these which largely contributes to 
that peculiar style whi guishes poetic diction. 

19* 



Pakt Fourth. 
PROSODY. 



Piiosody treats of Verse, and teaches how to arrange 
words according to the principles of Versification. 

Written discourse, or composition, is divided into two kinds ; 
Prose and Yerse. 

Prose is that kind of composition in which language is used in its 
ordinary or natural forms, with reference primarily to sense. 

VERSE, 

Verse is that kind of composition in which the words 
are placed in lines containing a definite number of accented 
and unaccented syllables arranged according to fixed rules. 

Yerse (from the Latin word " verto," meaning, I turn) is so 
called because, when one line is finished, the writer turns back and 
begins another. 

Yerse is the form in which poetry, or the language of imagination 
and exalted emotion, is oftenest expressed. 

The term "verse," in its narrowest sense, means a single line 
of poetry, or a verse. 

A stanza is a number of lines combined to form a division of a 
poem or a song. This number depends upon the pleasure of the writer ; 
but usually a stanza consists of four, six, or eight lines. 

KINDS OF YERSE. 

Verse is of two kinds; Ehyme and Blank Versfe. 
Rhyme is that kind of verse in which the lines end with 
syllables having a similar sound ; as, — 

" Her eyes as stars of twilight fair; 
Like twilight's too, her dusky hair" 

Lines ending thus are called rhymes. 
222 



PROSODY. 223 

Two lines rhyming together form a Couplet; three, a Triplet. 

Blank Verse is verse without rhyme j as, — 

1 * Till the moon 
Rising in cloudless majesty, at Length 
Apparent queen, unveiled her peerless light, 
And o'er the dark her silver mantle threw/' 

VERSIFICATION. 
Versification is the art of making verse. 
The parts of which verse is composed are called Feet. 

FEET. 

A Foot (or Measure) is a portion of a line consisting of 
two or more syllables, combined according to Accent. 

Accent is the special force of voice with which a certain 
syllable or certain syllables of a word are uttered. 

Accent in English verse corresponds to Quantity in Greek or Latin 
: thus, while the latter is made according to the quantity of syl- 
. English is composed wholly according to accent. 

By the Quantity of a syllable is meant the relative time employed 
in pronouncing it. 

Syllables are long, short, or variable. Every accented syllable is 
7, and every unaccented syllable as short. 

In all the following examples of verse an accented syllable is 
distinguished by a straight line ( — ) placed over it; an unaccented, 
by a curved line ( w ) placed over it; as, sweetest; content. 

In poetry, monosyllabic words receive accent although without it 

in prose ; as, — 

"Come and trip it as you gd." 

KINDS OF FEET. 

The Kinds of Feet most used in English verse are the 
eight following; of which four consist each of two sylla- 
3, and four, of three : — 

I. Fed of Two Syllables. 

1. The Iambus, — a Bbort syllable and a Long; as, c&nt&in* 

2. The Trochee, — a Long syllable and a short ; as, hOpeUs$. 

3. The Spondee,- 

4. The Pyrrhic,— tw< Uables; as, (hnpe)-le'ss-ly. 



224 PROSODY. 

II. Feet of Three Syllables. 

1. The Anapest, — two short syllables and one long; as, appertain* 

2. The Dactyl, — one long syllable and two short ; as, earliest 

3. The Amphibrach, — one short, one long, and one short; as, forever. 

4. The Tribrach, — three short syllables ; as, ( inter) -mindble. 

Of these feet, the Iambus, the Trochee, the Anapest, 
and the Dactyl, are the most important. 

A line may be wholly composed of feet belonging to any one of 
these kinds ; such a line is called Pure. 

The other feet serve to vary the measure, but seldom of themselves 
form whole lines. A line composed of different kinds of feet is called 
Mixed. Most poems contain mixed lines. 

DENOMINATIONS OF VERSE. 
"Verse is named according to the kind of foot which pre- 
vails in a line, and at the same time according to the 
number of feet contained in it. 

I. Aline in which iambuses prevail, is called an Iambic 
line ; that in which trochees prevail, a Trochaic ; that in 
which anapests, an Anapestic ; and that in which dactyls, 
a Dactylic. 

II. A line containing one foot or measure is called a 
Monometer ; a line containing two, a Dimeter ; one con- 
taining three, a Trimeter ; one containing four, a Tetra- 
meter ; one containing five, a Pentameter ; one containing 
six, a Hexameter ; one containing seven, a Heptameter ; 
and one containing eight, an Octometer. 

Therefore verse is distinguished as Iambic Monometer, Iambic Di- 
meter, etc. ; Trochaic Monometer, Trochaic Dimeter, etc. ; Anapestic 
Monometer, etc. ; Dactylic Monometer, etc. 

The term Metre is applied to any of these varieties of verse. 

Scanning is the dividing of a line into the feet or mea- 
sures of which it is composed. 

Lines are deficient, complete, or redundant. 

A line in which a syllable is wanting is said to be Catalectic; a 
line whose measures are all complete is said to be Acatalectic; and 
one in which a syllable is redundant is called a Hypermeter. 



PROSODY. 225 

IAMBIC VERSE. 
Iambic verse in its different metres embraces by far the 
largest portion of English poetry. In this verse, the accent 
is placed upon the second syllable, the fourth, etc. 

EXAMPLES. 

One foot, or Manometer, 

No more 

Deplore. 

Two feet, or Dimeter. 
The gold | en day 
Now fades | away. 

Three feet, or Trimeter. 
The day |is pastjand gone; 
The evejning shades | appear. 

Four feet, or Tetrameter. 
The smiles | of joy, | the tears | of woe, 
Deceit jful shine, | deceit jful flow. 

Five feet, or Pentameter. 
The serjvice past, | around | the pi|ous man, 
With readjy zealjeach honjest riis|tic ran. 

Six feet, or Hexameter. 
Nor wearjmy hours|away,|but seek|the her|mit's cell; 
'TIs hejmy doubtjean clear, | perhaps | my care|dlspel. 

Seven feet, or Heptameter. 
The mei anchol|y daysjare come,|the sad|dest of |the year; 
Of waiting winds | and na ked woods|and meadjows brown|and sere. 

Examples of Iambic Hypermeter. 
The redundant syllable is unaccented or short. 
Confid ing. 

With o§asq 1588 motion. 
Some ban qtlei hall desSrt 5cL 

trips aldng with }>}'<< s5ma lndjen. 
And .«il|ver cords! again) id earth | have w5n|me\ 
Could in that man|gl§d o5rpse|have traced thS proud' Ores] t&a. 
AQr 5*er the hill.-, I l] Ho1lra|att£nd|8d. 

Blank verse is usually written in iambic pentameters. 
Iambic pentameters! either with or without rhyme, constitute He- 
roic Verse, — so called because nee I to describe the deeds of heroes. 



226 PROSODY. 

This metre is often varied by the use of trochees, anajests, etc., in 
certain places, instead of iambuses, and a spondee frequently occurs 
in the first foot. 

TROCHAIC VERSE. 

In trochaic verse, the accent is placed upon the first 
syllable, the third, etc. 

EXAMPLES. 

One foot, or Monometer. 

Beauty 

Charms us. 

Tivofeet, or Dimeter. 
Storms are | trailing, 
Winds are] wailing. 

Three feet, or Trimeter. 
In her | palace | bower 
Sat a | maiden | lonely. 

Four feet, or Tetrameter. 
Heroes] lived and] died to |gain it; 
Living, | dying, | we'll main | tain it. 

Eight feet, or Odometer. 
Once up | on a | midnight | dreary, | while 1 1 pondered, [weak and | weary, 
While I| nodded, | nearly] napping, ] suddgn | ly there | came a| tapping. 

Examples of Trochaic Hypermeter. 
The redundant syllable is long. 

Other | j oy s Are but | toys. 

From one|lonely|cloud. 
Sorrow | like the | desert] rain. 
Fairer, | sweeter | flowers | bloom in | beauty | there. 
Softly | sweet the|song is | stealing, | softly | through thejnight a|far. 

ANAPESTIC VERSE. 

In anapestic verse, when pure, the accent is placed upon 
the third syllable, the sixth, etc. 

EXAMPLES. 

One foot, or Monometer. 
Then again 
Came the rain. 

Two feet, or Dimeter. 
There's a cry, | and a shout, 
And a terjrible rout. 



PROSODY. 227 

Three fiet) or 7V/Y 
Not i shrub that l heard her admire, 

But I hasted ami plant ed it there. 

Four fti /, or '/' trameh r. 

If thine eyojshould grow dim, fad thy eau tlOD depart, 
*' L5ok aloft," ami be firm and be fear less of heart. 

Examples of Anapestic Hypi rmeter, 

T5 the charge! like the rush of the o|cean. 
And their jujbilee shout shall be sGften'd with sad|ngs3. 
DACTYLIC VERSE. 

In Jactylic verse, the accent is placed upon the first 
syllable, the fourth, etc. 

Dactylic verse is not often pure, that is, wholly composed of dactyls. 
A spondee, or a trochee, or one long syllabic, usually forms the Last foot. 

EXAMPLES. 

One foot, or Manometer. 

Fatherless, 
Motherless. 

Monometer, Ibjprrmeter. 
Eng a lone 
"Cnder thejsea. 

Two feet, or Dimeter. 

Take her ftp tenderly, 

iloned bo" ~l~mK-rly. 

Tri 
Over the mountain fad 5ver th<~ hill. 
Lightly and brightljf thou hovrr.Vt .-till, 

Tetrmn r. 

0! dUQ] T dSySi I B foSc fWm this he&rt-erfl hIng|ohftin? 

Shall tbl round me no more? 

Hall t'» th« | hSrftld wh<".?o | l bdta fr-m | m*! 

Mng W|16w frum th6 | L. Il and Of | her«>s -hall | sfivfir m«. 

Da G "ks 

and B in :n»y foofl except 

the fifth, which was usually a -la which was always 
a spondee. 



228 PROSODY. 

EXAMPLES OF AMPHIBRAIC VERSE. 

In amphibraic lines, the accent is placed upon the second 
syllable, the fifth, etc. 

Our forests, | our fountains, 

Our hamlets | and mountains. 
There is a|bleak desert| where daylight | grows weary 
Of wasting | its smile on | a region] so dreary. 

MIXED VERSE. 

The mingling of different kinds of feet in the same line 
is quite frequent; so also is the use of different metres in 
the same poem. By these means a pleasing variety is given 
to the flow of verse. 

EXAMPLES. 

Ldsing\ihe time | beneath | the green | wood shade. 
Softly | sweet in | Lydian | measures. 

The gem | may be broke 
By man|y a stroke, 
But nothing | can cloud | its na|tive ray. 

POETIC PAUSES. 

A Pause is a suspension of the voice in reading or 
in speaking. Two pauses, besides those required by the 
sense, belong to verse,- — the Final and the Csesural. 

The Final Pause is that which occurs at the end of the line, whether 
required by the sense or not. The Caesural Pause is that which is 
made within the line near the middle. 

These pauses add much to the proper delivery of verse. Long lines 
may have two or more caesural pauses. 

Examples of Pauses. 

Can storied urn|| or animated bust| 

Back|to its mansion 1 1 call the fleeting breath? 

Can Honor's voice 1 1 provoke the silent dust, 
Or flattery 1 1 soothe the dull|cold ear of Death? 

THE END. 



STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON & CO. 
PHILADELPHIA. 



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